Where more bacteria - in the ocean or in city sewers? According to the English microbiologist Thomas Curtis, a milliliter of ocean water contains an average of 160 species of bacteria, a gram of soil contains from 6,400 to 38,000 species, and a milliliter of sewage from city sewers, no matter how

Eden in the Pacific Ocean It was decided to create a biological station on the Galapagos Islands! I received this joyful news in the spring of 1957, when I was preparing for an expedition to the Indo-Malayan region. international union conservation and UNESCO invited me to go to

The uppermost layer of the ocean (UML + seasonal thermocline) requires much more detailed description. The next paragraph will be devoted to this issue.[ ...]

In a more important dynamic formulation using the Väissälä-Brunt frequency N, the density jump layer is noticeably more stably stratified (L3-10 2 s-1) than the troposphere as a whole, in which 10-2 s"1, although less stable than strong atmospheric inversions (TP"1.7-10-1 s-1). With the ubiquitous distribution of the density jump layer in the ocean and the rarity of strong inversions in the atmosphere, this explains the much wider propagation of internal waves in the ocean compared to the atmosphere.[ ...]

The most active upper layer of the ocean, dominated by living matter plankton, up to 150-200 m. Pollution is exposed here to the impact of living organisms. The latter bind a huge amount of dissolved and suspended substances. Such a powerful biofiltration system does not exist on land.[ ...]

A peculiar zone of the World Ocean, characterized by high fish productivity, is upwelling, i.e. the rise of waters from the depths to the upper layers of the ocean, as a rule, on the western shores of contingents.[ ...]

The heater is warm water from the upper layers of the ocean. The highest water temperature is observed in the Persian Gulf in August - more than 33 ° C (and the highest water temperature was recorded in the Red Sea - plus 36 ° C). But the converter cannot rely on the maximum temperature: it is found in limited areas of the World Ocean, and vast areas have a surface layer temperature of about 25 ° C. This is a high enough temperature at which many liquids boil. D'Arsonval suggested using ammonia as a working fluid - a liquid with a temperature; boiling point minus 33.4°C, which will boil well ■ at 25°C. At normal temperature (20 °C) ammonia - colorless gas with a pungent odor. As the pressure increases, gaseous ammonia turns back into a liquid. At 20 °C, for this, the pressure must be increased to 8.46 atm, but at 5 °C it is much less.[ ...]

Energy-active areas of the World Ocean are the minimum structural components involved in the formation of large-scale heat exchange between the ocean and the atmosphere. Occupying “¿20% of the area of ​​the World Ocean, they are responsible for “40% of the total heat exchange in the ocean-atmosphere-land system. These are areas of maximum disagreement between the thermal and humidity fields of the upper layer of the ocean and the planetary boundary layer of the atmosphere: it is here that the intensity of work to coordinate these fields is maximum. And although we claim that EAO are characteristic structures in large-scale fields, this does not mean that their spatial arrangement is rigidly fixed and the intensity is constant. The same areas are characterized by the maximum ranges of heat flux variability, which indicates that they serve as the most informative water areas for monitoring the state of the climate system. That is, all of them may not be in an active state at the same time, but it is in these areas that the most active local heat transfer is formed and excited in a certain polycyclic sequence.[ ...]

As a result of these factors, the upper layer of the ocean is usually well mixed. It is called so - mixed. Its thickness depends on the season, wind strength and geographical area. For example, in summer in calm weather, the thickness of the mixed layer in the Black Sea is only 20-30 m. And in the Pacific Ocean near the equator, a mixed layer with a thickness of about 700 m was discovered (by an expedition on the research vessel "Dmitry Mendeleev"). From the surface to a depth of 700 m there was a layer of warm and clear water with a temperature of about 27 ° C. This area Pacific Ocean in its hydrophysical properties it is similar to the Sargasso Sea in the Atlantic Ocean. In winter, the mixed layer on the Black Sea is 3-4 times thicker than the summer layer, its depth reaches 100-120 m. Such a large difference is explained by intensive mixing in winter time: the stronger the wind, the greater the wave on the surface and the more mixing occurs. Such a jump layer is also called seasonal, since the depth of the layer depends on the season of the year.[ ...]

UPWELLING upwelling] - the rise of water from the depths to the upper layers of the ocean (sea). It is common on the western coasts of continents, where winds drive away surface waters from the coast, and cold masses of water rich in nutrients take their place.[ ...]

The exchange of carbon dioxide also occurs between the atmosphere and the ocean. A large amount of dissolved in the upper layers of the ocean carbon dioxide in equilibrium with atmospheric. In total, the hydrosphere contains about 13-1013 tons of dissolved carbon dioxide, and the atmosphere contains 60 times less. Life on Earth and the gaseous balance of the atmosphere are maintained by relatively small amounts of carbon involved in the small cycle and contained in plant tissues (5-1011 tons), in animal tissues (5-109 tons). The carbon cycle in biospheric processes is shown in fig. 2.[ ...]

In general, it should be noted that the amplitude of annual temperature fluctuations in the upper layers of the ocean is not more than 10-15°С, in continental waters -30-35°С.[ ...]

Kisloe A. V., Semenchenko B. A., Tuzhilkin V. S. On the factors of variability in the structure of the upper layer of the ocean in the tropics//Meteorology and Hydrology, No. 4, 1983, p. 84-89.[ ...]

The biosphere is concentrated mainly in the form of a relatively thin film on the land surface and mainly (but not exclusively) in the upper layers of the ocean. It cannot function without close interaction with the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, and the pedosphere simply would not exist without living organisms.[ ...]

Other integrated indicators are also possible. Thus, to model the distribution of saury in the Pacific Ocean, the temperature in the upper layer of the ocean turned out to be such an integral characteristic, since the distribution of currents, water masses, salinity, and other hydrological and hydrochemical indicators in the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean closely correlates with the distribution of water temperature in the upper layer (Kashkin, 1986 ).[ ...]

Heating from above (by contact and due to the strong absorption of light penetrating into it by water) and desalination (by precipitation, river runoff, ice melting) can only affect a very thin upper layer of the ocean, only tens of meters, since due to hydrostatic stability of a heated or desalinated layer, it cannot independently mix with the underlying water, and the forced mixing created by breaking surface waves does not penetrate deep (mixing in turbulent spots formed in places of hydrodynamic instability of internal waves is, on average, very weak and acts, apparently , extremely slowly).[ ...]

If equation (4.9.2) or its equivalent form with primes in the variables is integrated over the entire ocean, then we get the same obvious contradiction as in the case of the mechanical energy equation. On large scales there is inflow through the ocean surface (because surface salinity is high where there is salt flow into the ocean, see for example), but salt loss by diffusion is negligible on large scales. As in the case of energy, there is a transfer of salinity from one scale to another due to the non-linear advective term in (4.3.8), while very small scales make a significant contribution to the right side of (4.9.2). According to the estimate, the rms salinity gradient in the upper layer of the ocean is 1000 times greater than the average gradient.[ ...]

Nitrogen compounds (nitrates, nitrites) in solutions enter plant organisms, participating in the formation of organic matter (amino acids, complex proteins). Part of the nitrogen compounds is taken out into rivers, seas, penetrates into groundwater. From the compounds dissolved in sea water, nitrogen is absorbed by aquatic organisms, and after their death, it moves into the depths of the ocean. Therefore, the concentration of nitrogen in the upper layers of the ocean increases markedly.[ ...]

An analysis of the reasons for the existing phase relationship between annual temperature fluctuations in air and water is given on the basis of model interpretations of the annual variation in . As a rule, such models proceed from the heat transfer equation, in which various authors take into account the factors of formation of cyclicity in the ocean and in the atmosphere with varying degrees of completeness. A. A. Pivovarov and Wo Wang Lan constructed a nonlinear model for a stratified ocean and took into account the volumetric absorption of radiant energy by the upper layer of the ocean. The diurnal variation of water and air surface temperatures is analyzed. A phase lag of air temperature from water temperature was obtained, which is inconsistent with empirical data, according to which in daily course air temperature is ahead of water temperature.[ ...]

Naturally occurring humic and stearic acids, which are common impurities in many wastewaters, also greatly retarded calcite formation. This inhibition is probably caused by the adsorption of the acid anion, since the ionic forms of these compounds predominate under the experimental conditions. Sewess and Myers and Quine found that stearic acid and other natural organic matter can be strongly adsorbed when calcium carbonate comes into contact with sea water. Apparently, this adsorption explains the inhibition of the formation of calcium carbonate in the upper layers of the ocean. In the presence of stearic acid (1-1O-4 M), a slight but measurable crystallization reaction occurs (see Fig. 3.4), which shows that this acid does not inhibit the crystallization reaction as completely as metaphosphate.[ ... ]

The second special experiment to study the synoptic variability of ocean currents ("Polygon-70") was carried out by Soviet oceanologists led by the Institute of Oceanology of the USSR Academy of Sciences in February-September 1970 in the northern trade wind zone of the Atlantic, where continuous measurements of currents were carried out for six months at 10 depths from 25 to 1500 m at 17 moored buoy stations, forming a cross measuring 200X200 km centered at 16°W 14, 33°30 N, and a number of hydrological surveys were also made.[ ...]

The large-scale contrast of heat content in the ocean far exceeds both the potential energy of the level slope and the energy of the density differentiation of waters. The thermal water differences themselves, as a rule, are formed over large areas and are accompanied by smooth spatially extended movements of the convective type. In unevenly heated waters with spatially varying densities, there are horizontal gradients, which can also be sources of local motions. In such cases, part of the available potential energy passes into them. If, when calculating it, we proceed from the difference in the reserves of potential energies of two neighboring equal volumes with different densities in the upper parts, then for the entire ocean we come to the estimate that we previously determined as the energy of density differentiation, i.e., to 1018-1019 J. The age of the waters of the upper layer of the ocean (> 1000 m) is estimated at 10-20 for years. From a comparison of the energy of the thermal contrast of ocean waters and the contrast of solar energy inflow to warm and cold ocean waters [(1-3) -1023 J/year], it follows that this contrast takes about 10-15 years to accumulate. Then we can tentatively assume that the main features of the density differentiation of the upper layer will be formed in 10 years. A tenth of this energy is transferred annually mechanical movements ocean. Therefore, the annual energy input as a result of baroclinic instability should be roughly estimated at about 1018 J.[ ...]

In 1905, the Swedish scientist V. Ekman created the theory of the wind current, which received a mathematical and graphical expression, known as the Ekman spiral. According to her, the flow of water should be directed at right angles to the direction of the wind, with depth it is so deflected by the Coriolis force that it begins to flow in the opposite direction to the wind. One of the effects of water transport, according to Ekmen's theory, is that the trade winds cause the flow to shift north and south of the equator. To compensate for the outflow, cold deep waters rise here. That is why the temperature of surface water at the equator is lower by 2-3°C than in its neighboring tropical regions. The slow rise of deep waters into the upper layers of the ocean is called upwelling, and the sinking is called downwelling.

The body of water outside the land is called oceans. The waters of the World Ocean occupy about 70.8% of the surface area of ​​​​our planet (361 million km 2) and play an extremely important role in the development of the geographical envelope.

The world ocean contains 96.5% of the waters of the hydrosphere. The volume of its waters is 1,336 million km 3. The average depth is 3711 m, the maximum is 11022 m. The prevailing depths are from 3000 to 6000 m. They account for 78.9% of the area.

The temperature of the water surface is from 0°C and below in the polar latitudes to +32°C in the tropics (Red Sea). To the bottom layers, it decreases to +1°C and below. The average salinity is about 35 ‰, the maximum is 42 ‰ (Red Sea).

The oceans are divided into oceans, seas, bays, straits.

Borders oceans not always and not everywhere they pass along the coasts of the continents, they are often carried out very conditionally. Each ocean has a complex of inherent qualities only to it. Each of them is characterized by its own system of currents, a system of tides, a specific distribution of salinity, its own temperature and ice regime, its own circulation with air currents, its own character of depths and dominant bottom sediments. Allocate Pacific (Great), Atlantic, Indian and Arctic oceans. Sometimes the Southern Ocean is also distinguished.

Sea - a significant area of ​​the ocean, more or less isolated from it by land or underwater uplifts and distinguished by its natural conditions(depth, bottom relief, temperature, salinity, waves, currents, tides, organic life).

Depending on the nature of the contact between continents and oceans Seas are divided into the following three types:

1.Mediterranean seas: are located between two continents or are located in the fault belts of the earth's crust; they are characterized by a strong indentation of the coastline, a sharp drop in depths, seismicity and volcanism (Sargasso Sea, Red Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Sea of ​​​​Marmara, etc.).

2. Inland seas: deeply protrude into land, located inside the continents, between islands or continents or within the archipelago, significantly separated from the ocean, characterized by shallow depths (White Sea, Baltic Sea, Hudson Sea, etc.).

3. Marginal seas: located on the outskirts of the continents and large islands, on continental shallows and slopes. They are wide open towards the ocean (the Norwegian Sea, the Kara Sea, the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, the Sea of ​​Japan, the Yellow Sea, etc.).

The geographical position of the sea largely determines its hydrological regime. Inland seas are weakly connected to the ocean, so the salinity of their water, currents and tides differ markedly from those of the ocean. The regime of the marginal seas is essentially oceanic. Most of the seas are located off the northern continents, especially off the coast of Eurasia.

gulf - a part of the ocean or sea that protrudes into the land, but has free water exchange with the rest of the water area, differs slightly from it in terms of natural features and regime. The difference between the sea and the bay is not always perceptible. In principle, the bay is smaller than the sea; every sea forms bays, but the opposite does not happen. Historically, in the Old World, even small water areas, such as Azov and Marmara, are called seas, and in America and Australia, where names were given by European discoverers, even large seas are called bays - Hudson, Mexican. Sometimes the same water areas are called one sea, the other - a bay (Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal).

Depending on the origin, coast structure, shape and size, bays are called bays, fjords, estuaries, lagoons:

Bays (harbours)- bays of small size, protected from waves and winds by capes protruding into the sea. They are convenient for mooring ships (Novorossiysk, Sevastopol - the Black Sea, the Golden Horn - the Sea of ​​Japan, etc.).

fjords- narrow, deep, long bays with protruding, steep, rocky shores and a trough-shaped profile, often separated from the sea by underwater rapids. The length of some can reach more than 200 km, the depth - more than 1000 m. Their origin is associated with faults and erosional activity of Quaternary glaciers (the coast of Norway, Greenland, Chile).

Estuaries- shallow, deeply protruding bays with spits and embankments. They are formed in the widened mouths of rivers when the coastal land sinks (the Dnieper and Dniester estuaries in the Black Sea).

lagoons- Shallow bays with salty or brackish water stretched along the coast, separated from the sea by spits, or connected to the sea by a narrow strait (well developed on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico).

Lips- shallow bays into which large rivers usually flow. Here, the water is highly desalinated, differs sharply in color from the water of the adjacent sea area and has yellowish and brownish hues (Penzhina Bay).

Straits - relatively narrow water spaces connecting separate parts of the World Ocean and separating land areas. According to the nature of water exchange, they are divided into: flowing– currents are directed along the entire cross section in one direction; exchange The waters move in opposite directions. In them, water exchange can occur vertically (Bosphorus) or horizontally (Laperouse, Devisov).

Structure The world ocean is called its structure - vertical stratification of waters, horizontal (geographical) zonality, the nature of water masses and ocean fronts.

In a vertical section, the water column breaks up into large layers, similar to the layers of the atmosphere. The following four spheres (layers) are distinguished:

Upper sphere formed by direct exchange of energy and matter with the troposphere. It covers a layer of 200–300 m thick. This upper sphere is characterized by intense mixing, light penetration and significant temperature fluctuations.

Intermediate sphere extends to depths of 1500–2000 m; its waters are formed from surface water when they are lowered. At the same time, they are cooled and compacted, and then mixed in horizontal directions, mainly with a zonal component. They stand out in the polar regions with elevated temperatures, in temperate latitudes and tropical regions with low or high salinity. Horizontal transfers of water masses predominate.

Deep Sphere does not reach the bottom by about 1000 m. This sphere is characterized by a certain uniformity. Its thickness is about 2000 m and it concentrates more than 50% of all the water of the oceans.

bottom sphere occupies the lowest layer of the ocean and extends to a distance of about 1000 m from the bottom. The waters of this sphere are formed in cold zones, in the Arctic and Antarctic and move over vast expanses along deep basins and trenches, they are distinguished by the lowest temperatures and the highest density. They perceive heat from the bowels of the Earth and interact with the ocean floor. Therefore, during their movement, they are significantly transformed.

A water mass is a relatively large volume of water that forms in a certain area of ​​the World Ocean and has almost constant physical (temperature, light), chemical (gases) and biological (plankton) properties for a long time. One mass is separated from another by an ocean front.

The following types of water masses are distinguished:

1. Equatorial water masses are characterized by the highest temperature in the open ocean, low salinity (up to 34–32 ‰), minimum density, high content of oxygen and phosphates.

2. Tropical and subtropical water masses are created in the areas of tropical atmospheric anticyclones and are characterized by high salinity (up to 37 ‰ and more) and high transparency, poverty of nutrient salts and plankton. IN environmentally they are oceanic deserts.

3. Moderate water masses are located in temperate latitudes and are characterized by great variability of properties both in geographical latitudes and in seasons. Moderate water masses are characterized by an intense exchange of heat and moisture with the atmosphere.

4. The polar water masses of the Arctic and Antarctic are characterized by the lowest temperature, highest density, and high oxygen content. The waters of the Antarctic sink intensively into the near-bottom sphere and supply it with oxygen.

The waters of the World Ocean are in continuous movement and mixing. Unrest- oscillatory movements of water, currents- progressive. main reason unrest (waves) on the surface - wind at a speed of more than 1 m / s. The excitement caused by the wind fades with depth. Deeper than 200 m, even strong waves are already imperceptible. At a wind speed of approximately 0.25 m / s, ripples. When the wind increases, the water experiences not only friction, but also air blows. Waves grow in height and length, increasing the period of oscillation and speed. The ripples turn into gravitational waves. The magnitude of the waves depends on the wind speed and acceleration. The maximum height in temperate latitudes (up to 20 - 30 meters). The least excitement is in the equatorial zone, the frequency of calm is 20 - 33%.

Seismic waves are generated by underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. tsunami. The length of these waves is 200 - 300 meters, the speed is 700 - 800 km / h. seiches(standing waves) occur as a result of sudden changes in pressure over the water surface. Amplitude 1 - 1.5 meters. Characteristic of closed seas and bays.

sea ​​currents- these are horizontal movements of water in the form of wide streams. Surface currents are caused by wind, while deep currents are caused by different water densities. Warm currents (Gulf Stream, North Atlantic) are directed from lower latitudes towards wider ones, cold ones (Labrodor, Peruvian) - vice versa. In tropical latitudes near the western coasts of the continents, the trade winds drive warm water and carry it westward. In its place, cold water rises from the depths. 5 cold currents are formed: Canary, California, Peruvian, West Australian and Benguela. In the southern hemisphere, the cold streams of the current of the West Winds pour into them. Warm waters are formed by moving parallel trade wind currents: North and South. In the Indian Ocean in the northern hemisphere - monsoon. At the eastern coasts of the continents, they are divided into parts, deviate to the north and south and go along the continents: at 40 - 50º N.S. under the influence of westerly winds, the currents deviate to the east and form warm currents.

Tidal movements ocean waters arise under the influence of the forces of attraction of the moon and the sun. The highest tides are observed in the Bay of Fundy (18 m). There are semi-diurnal, diurnal and mixed tides.

Also, the water dynamics is characterized by vertical mixing: in convergence zones - water subsidence, in divergence zones - upwelling.

The bottom of the oceans and seas is covered with sedimentary deposits called marine sediments , soils and silts. According to the mechanical composition, udon deposits are classified into: coarse-grained sedimentary rocks or psephites(blocks, boulders, pebbles, gravel), sandy rocks or psummits(sands coarse, medium, fine), silty rocks or silts(0.1 - 0.01 mm) and clayey rocks or pellets.

According to the material composition, bottom sediments are divided into weakly calcareous (lime content 10–30%), calcareous (30–50%), highly calcareous (more than 50%), weakly siliceous (silicon content 10–30%), siliceous (30–50%) and strongly siliceous (more than 50%) deposits. According to the genesis, terrigenous, biogenic, volcanogenic, polygenic and authigenic deposits are distinguished.

Terrigenous precipitation is brought from land by rivers, wind, glaciers, surf, ebbs and flows in the form of destruction products rocks. Near the coast, they are represented by boulders, further by pebbles, sands, and finally, silts and clays. They cover approximately 25% of the ocean floor, occur mainly on the shelf and continental slope. A special variety of terrigenous deposits are iceberg deposits, which are characterized by a low content of lime, organic carbon, poor sorting, and a diverse granulometric composition. They are formed from sedimentary material that falls to the ocean floor when icebergs melt. They are most characteristic of the Antarctic waters of the World Ocean. There are also terrigenous deposits of the Arctic Ocean, formed from sedimentary material brought by rivers, icebergs, river ice. Turbidites, sediments of turbidity flows, also have a mostly terrigenous composition. They are typical of the continental slope and continental foot.

Biogenic precipitation are formed directly in the oceans and seas as a result of the death of various marine organisms, mainly planktonic, and the precipitation of their insoluble residues. According to their material composition, biogenic deposits are divided into siliceous and calcareous.

Siliceous sediments consist of the remains of diatoms, radiolarians and flint sponges. Diatom sediments are widespread in the southern parts of the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic oceans in the form of a continuous belt around Antarctica; in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, in the Bering and Okhotsk seas, but here they contain a high admixture of terrigenous material. Separate patches of diatom oozes have been found at great depths (more than 5000 m) in the tropical zones of the Pacific Ocean. Diatom-radiolarian deposits are most common in the tropical latitudes of the Pacific and Indian oceans, flint-sponge deposits are found on the shelf of Antarctica, the Sea of ​​Okhotsk.

lime deposits, like siliceous, are divided into a number of types. The most widely developed are foraminiferal-coccolithic and foraminiferal oozes, which are distributed mainly in the tropical and subtropical parts of the oceans, especially in the Atlantic. A typical foraminiferal silt contains up to 99% lime. The shells of planktonic foraminifers, as well as coccolithophorids, shells of planktonic calcareous algae, constitute a significant part of such oozes. With a significant admixture in the bottom sediments of shells of planktonic pteropod mollusks, pteropod-foraminiferal deposits are formed. Large areas of them are found in the equatorial Atlantic, as well as in the Mediterranean, Caribbean Seas, in the Bahamas, in the Western Pacific Ocean and other areas of the World Ocean.

Coral-algae deposits occupy the equatorial and tropical shallow waters of the western part of the Pacific Ocean, cover the bottom in the north of the Indian Ocean, in the Red and Caribbean Seas, shelly carbonate deposits - coastal zones of the seas of temperate and subtropical zones.

Pyroclastic or volcanogenic sediments are formed as a result of the products of volcanic eruptions entering the World Ocean. Usually these are tuffs or tuff breccias, less often - unconsolidated sands, silts, less often sediments of deep, highly saline and high-temperature underwater sources. So, at their outlets in the Red Sea, highly ferruginous sediments with a high content of lead and other non-ferrous metals are formed.

TO polygenic sediments one type of bottom sediments is referred to as deep-water red clay, a sediment of pelitic composition of brown or brown-red color. This color is due to the high content of iron and manganese oxides. Deep-water red clays are common in the abyssal basins of the oceans at depths of more than 4500 m. They occupy the most significant areas in the Pacific Ocean.

authigenic or chemogenic sediments are formed as a result of chemical or biochemical precipitation of certain salts from sea water. These include oolitic deposits, glauconite sands and silts, and ferromanganese nodules.

Oolites- the smallest balls of lime, found in the warm waters of the Caspian and Aral Seas, the Persian Gulf, in the Bahamas.

Glauconite sands and silts– sediments of various compositions with a noticeable admixture of glauconite. They are most widespread on the shelf and continental slope off the Atlantic coast of the USA, Portugal, Argentina, on the underwater margin of Africa, off the southern coast of Australia and in some other areas.

ferromanganese nodules- concretions of iron and manganese hydroxides with an admixture of other compounds, primarily cobalt, copper, nickel. They occur as inclusions in deep-water red clays and in places, especially in the Pacific Ocean, form large accumulations.

More than a third of the entire area of ​​the ocean floor is occupied by deep-water red clay, and approximately the same distribution area is covered by foraminiferal sediments. The rate of accumulation of sediments is determined by the thickness of the layer of sediments deposited on the bottom over 1000 years (in some areas 0.1–0.3 mm per thousand years, in estuaries, transition zones and gutters - hundreds of millimeters per thousand years).

In the distribution of bottom sediments in the World Ocean, the law of latitudinal geographical zonality is clearly manifested. So, in the tropical and temperate zones, the ocean floor to a depth of 4500–5000 m is covered with biogenic calcareous deposits, deeper - with red clays. The subpolar belts are occupied by siliceous biogenic material, while the polar belts are occupied by iceberg deposits. Vertical zoning finds expression in the replacement of carbonate sediments at great depths by red clays.

In many ways, this geosphere remains enigmatic. Thus, the development of astronautics refuted the "obvious" truth about the zero surface of the World Ocean. It turned out that even in complete calm the water surface has its own relief. Depressions and hills with an absolute excess of tens of meters accumulate at distances of thousands of kilometers, and therefore are invisible. Five planetary anomalies (in meters) are remarkable: Indian minus 112, California minus 56, Caribbean plus 60, North Atlantic plus 68, Australian plus 78.

The reasons for such stable anomalies have not yet been elucidated. But it is assumed that the excesses and depressions of the surface of the World Ocean are associated with anomalies in gravity. The multilayer model of the planet provides for an increase in the density of each subsequent layer in depth. The boundaries of the division of underground geospheres are uneven. The mountains of the surface of Mohorovichich are twice as high as the terrestrial Himalayas. At a depth of 50 to 2900 kilometers, the sources of gravity anomalies can be zones of phase transitions of matter. The direction of gravity due to perturbations deviates from the radional direction. It is believed that at a depth of 400 - 900 kilometers there are masses of low density and masses of especially dense matter. Under the positive anomalies in the density of the oceanic surface there are masses of increased density, under the depressions - decompressed masses. can be used to explain the relief of the World Ocean. The vastness of the water-surface anomalies corresponds to the large inhomogeneities of the internal, which are associated not only with phase transitions of matter, but also with the initially different matter of protoplanetary modules. In the Earth, both the relatively light material of the lunar modules and the relatively heavy material are reunited. In 1955, the Twin City meteorite, composed of 70 percent iron and 30 percent nickel, fell in the southern United States. But the martensitic structure typical of such meteorites was not found in the Twin City meteorite. The American scientist R. Knox suggested that this meteorite is an unaltered fragment of the planetesimal, from which, in particular, planets formed billions of years ago. The presence in the depths of the masses of matter corresponding to the Twin City meteorite will ensure the stable existence of gravity anomalies.

As it was said earlier, the anomalies of the surface of the World Ocean and the projections of radiation anomalies in spatially coincide. It is possible that the perturbations of the gravity field and the magnetic field have one internal cause associated with the primary inhomogeneity of the planet.

The surface of the World Ocean is carefully studied from manned and automatic satellites. The Geo-3 satellite over the eastern coast of Australia at a distance of 3,200 kilometers established a 2 m difference in the height of the ocean surface: the water level is higher off the northern coast of the mainland. The special satellite Sisat, launched in 1978, measures water surface with an accuracy of 10 centimeters.

No less interesting is the problem of internal waves of the World Ocean. IN mid-eighteenth century B. Franklin during a sea voyage noticed that the oil in the lamp did not react to the rolling, and a wave periodically appeared in the layer under the oil. The publication of B. Franklin became the first scientific message about underwater waves, although the phenomenon itself was well known to navigators.

Sometimes, with a calm wind and little excitement, the ship suddenly lost speed. The sailors talked about the mysterious "dead water", but it was only after 1945 that systematic research began on this phenomenon. It turned out that with complete calm, storms of unprecedented strength rage at a depth: the height of underwater waves reaches 100 meters! True, the frequency of the waves is from several minutes to several days, but these slow waves penetrate the entire thickness of oceanic waters.

It is possible that it was the internal wave that caused the death of the American nuclear submarine Thresher: the boat was suddenly carried away by the wave to a great depth and was crushed.

Some internal ocean waves are caused by tides (the period of such waves is half a day), others are caused by wind and currents. However, such natural explanations are no longer enough, so numerous ships conduct round-the-clock observations in the ocean.

Man has always tried to penetrate deep into the oceans. The first descent in an underwater bell on the Tahoe River was recorded in 1538. In 1911, in the Mediterranean Sea, the American G. Hartmann sank to a record depth of 458 meters. Experimental submarines reached 900 meters (Dolphin in 1968). Bathyscaphes stormed the super-depths. On January 23, 1960, the Swiss J. Picard and the American D. Walsh sank to a depth of 10919 meters at the bottom of the Mariana Trench. These are not only cases demonstrating the technical and volitional capabilities of a person, but also a direct immersion in the "ocean of mysteries".

Behind geological time the salt balance of the World Ocean and the solid earth's crust has come. The average salinity of ocean water is 34.7 ppm, its fluctuations are 32-37.5 ppm.

The main ions of the World Ocean (in percent): CI 19.3534, SO24- 2.707, HCO 0.1427, Br- 0.0659, F- 0.0013, H3BO3 0.0265, Na+ 10.7638, Mg2+ 1.2970, Ca2+ 0.4080, K+ 0.3875, Sr2+ 0.0136/

The ocean is replenished with ions from various sources as a result of degassing of the planet's depths, destruction of the ocean floor, wind erosion, and the biological circulation of matter. Big number ions comes with river runoff. All land with a total river flow of 33,540 cubic kilometers supplies over two billion tons of ions per year.

The water mass of the World Ocean is heterogeneous. By analogy with the atmosphere, scientists began to distinguish volumetric mass boundaries in the World Ocean. But if in the atmosphere cyclones and anticyclones with a diameter of a thousand kilometers are common, then in the ocean eddies are 10 times smaller. The reasons are the great hydrostatic stability of water masses and the great influence of lateral coastal boundaries; in addition, the density, viscosity and thickness of the ocean are also different. But the main thing is that waters of different salinity and pollution do not mix well. Internal water currents, wind and waves create a uniform layer near the surface of the ocean. The vertical stratification of the World Ocean is very stable. But there are limited "windows" of vertical movement of waters of different temperature and salinity. Especially important are the “upwelling” zones, where cold deep waters rise to the sea surface and carry out significant masses and nutrients.

The boundaries of the sections of water masses are clearly visible from aircraft and space satellites. But this is only part of the boundaries of water masses. A significant proportion of the boundaries are hidden at depth. K. N. Fedorov draws attention to an amazing phenomenon: the waters of the Mediterranean Sea, pouring out in the bottom layer of the Strait of Gibraltar, flow down the slopes of the shelf and the continental slope, then break away from the ground at a depth of about a thousand meters and cross the entire Atlantic in the form of a layer hundreds of meters thick. ocean. In the direction from east to west, the layer of Mediterranean water is divided into thin layers, which, due to higher salinity and elevated temperature, are clearly visible at a depth of 1.5 - 2 kilometers in the Sargasso Sea. The waters of the Red Sea flowing into the Indian Ocean behave similarly. In the Red Sea itself, thermal ore-bearing brines are covered by a two-kilometer water column, the temperature of which is below 20-30 ° C. However, they do not mix. Thermal waters are heated to 45-58 °C, highly mineralized (up to 200 grams per liter). The upper boundary of thermal waters is represented by a series of sharp density steps, where heat and mass transfer occurs.

Thus, the water masses of the World Ocean are divided for natural reasons into isometric regions, layers and the thinnest interlayers. In practice, these properties are widely used in the covert passage of submarines. However, this is not all. It turns out that without concrete dams and fences artificially create weakly surmountable boundaries of waters of different salinity and temperature, and this is the way to create controlled aquaculture zones. For example, proposals are known to create artificial “upwelling” off the coast of Brazil using pumps to “fertilize” surface waters, which will increase opportunities.

It has long been known that ocean waters cover most of the surface of our planet. They constitute a continuous water shell, which accounts for more than 70% of the entire geographical plane. But few people thought that the properties of ocean waters are unique. They have a huge impact on climatic conditions and economic activities of people.

Property 1. Temperature

Ocean waters can store heat. (about 10 cm deep) retain a huge amount of heat. Cooling, the ocean warms the lower layers of the atmosphere, due to which average temperature terrestrial air is +15 °C. If there were no oceans on our planet, then the average temperature would hardly reach -21 ° C. It turns out that thanks to the ability of the oceans to accumulate heat, we got a comfortable and cozy planet.

The temperature properties of oceanic waters change abruptly. The heated surface layer is gradually mixed with more deep waters, resulting in a sharp temperature drop at a depth of several meters, and then a smooth decrease to the very bottom. The deep waters of the oceans have approximately the same temperature, measurements below three thousand meters usually show from +2 to 0 ° C.

As for surface waters, their temperature depends on geographical latitude. The spherical shape of the planet determines sun rays to the surface. Closer to the equator, the sun gives off more heat than at the poles. So, for example, the properties of the ocean waters of the Pacific Ocean directly depend on average temperature indicators. The surface layer has the highest average temperature, which is more than +19 °C. This cannot but affect the surrounding climate, and the underwater flora and fauna. This is followed by the surface waters of which, on average, are warmed up to 17.3 ° С. Then the Atlantic, where this figure is 16.6 ° C. And the lowest average temperatures are in the Arctic Ocean - about +1 °С.

Property 2. Salinity

What other properties of ocean waters are being studied by modern scientists? they are interested in the composition of sea water. Water in the ocean - a cocktail of dozens chemical elements, and salts play an important role in it. The salinity of ocean waters is measured in ppm. Designate it with the icon "‰". Promille means a thousandth of a number. It is estimated that a liter of ocean water has an average salinity of 35‰.

In the study of the oceans, scientists have repeatedly wondered what are the properties of ocean waters. Are they the same everywhere in the ocean? It turns out that salinity, like the average temperature, is not uniform. The indicator is influenced by a number of factors:

• the amount of precipitation - rain and snow significantly lower the overall salinity of the ocean;
• runoff of large and small rivers - the salinity of the oceans washing the continents with a large number of full-flowing rivers is lower;
• ice formation - this process increases salinity;
• melting ice - this process lowers the salinity of the water;
• evaporation of water from the surface of the ocean - salts do not evaporate with the waters, and salinity rises.

It turns out that the different salinity of the oceans is explained by the temperature of surface waters and climatic conditions. The highest average salinity is near the water of the Atlantic Ocean. However, the most salty point - the Red Sea, belongs to the Indian. The Arctic Ocean is characterized by the least indicator. These properties of the oceanic waters of the Arctic Ocean are most strongly felt near the confluence of the full-flowing rivers of Siberia. Here salinity does not exceed 10‰.

Interesting fact. The total amount of salt in the world's oceans

Scientists did not agree on how many chemical elements are dissolved in the waters of the oceans. Presumably from 44 to 75 elements. But they calculated that just an astronomical amount of salt is dissolved in the oceans, about 49 quadrillion tons. If all this salt is evaporated and dried, it will cover the surface of the land with a layer of more than 150 m.

Property 3. Density

The concept of "density" has been studied for a long time. This is the ratio of the mass of matter, in our case the oceans, to the volume occupied. Knowledge of the density value is necessary, for example, to maintain the buoyancy of ships.

Both temperature and density are heterogeneous properties of ocean waters. The average value of the latter is 1.024 g/cm³. This indicator was measured at average values ​​of temperature and salt content. However, in different parts of the World Ocean, the density varies depending on the depth of measurement, the temperature of the site, and its salinity.

Consider, for example, the properties of the oceanic waters of the Indian Ocean, and specifically the change in their density. This figure will be highest in the Suez and Persian Gulf. Here it reaches 1.03 g/cm³. In the warm and salty waters of the northwestern Indian Ocean, the figure drops to 1.024 g/cm³. And in the freshened northeastern part of the ocean and in the Bay of Bengal, where there is a lot of precipitation, the indicator is the lowest - about 1.018 g / cm³.

Density fresh water lower, which is why staying on the water in rivers and other fresh water bodies is somewhat more difficult.

Properties 4 and 5. Transparency and color

If you collect sea water in a jar, it will seem transparent. However, with an increase in the thickness of the water layer, it acquires a bluish or greenish tint. The change in color is due to the absorption and scattering of light. In addition, suspensions of various compositions affect the color of ocean waters.

The bluish color of pure water is the result of weak absorption of the red part of the visible spectrum. At a high concentration of phytoplankton in ocean water, it becomes blue-green or green color. This is due to the fact that phytoplankton absorbs the red part of the spectrum and reflects the green part.

The transparency of ocean water indirectly depends on the amount of suspended particles in it. In the field, transparency is determined with a Secchi disk. A flat disk, the diameter of which does not exceed 40 cm, is lowered into the water. The depth at which it becomes invisible is taken as an indicator of transparency in the area.

Properties 6 and 7. Sound propagation and electrical conductivity

Sound waves can travel thousands of kilometers under water. average speed distribution - 1500 m/s. This indicator for sea water is higher than for fresh water. The sound always deviates slightly from the straight line.

It has a higher electrical conductivity than fresh water. The difference is 4000 times. It depends on the number of ions per unit of water volume.