THOUGHTS OF THE WISE

“The more you live a spiritual life, the more independent of fate, and vice versa.”

L. N. Tolstoy (1828-1910). Russian writer

" 5. " Activity is the way people exist

Can a person do nothing in his life? Is there activity outside of consciousness and consciousness outside of activity?

HUMAN ACTIVITIES: MAIN CHARACTERISTICS

Activity is a form of interaction inherent only to man with the outside world. While a person lives, he is constantly acting, doing something, busy with something. In the process of activity, a person learns the world, creates the conditions necessary for his own existence (food, clothing, housing, etc.), satisfies his spiritual needs (for example, by doing science, literature, music, painting), and also engages in self-improvement (strengthening the will, character, developing his abilities).

In the course of human activity, there is a change and transformation of the world in the interests of people, the creation of something that does not exist in nature. Human activity is characterized by such features as consciousness, productivity, transformative and social character. These are precisely the features that distinguish human activity from the behavior of animals. Let us briefly characterize these differences.

First, human activity is conscious in nature. A person consciously puts forward the goals of his activity and foresees its result. secondly, the activity is productive. It is aimed at obtaining a result, a product. These, in particular, are tools made and constantly improved by man. In this connection, they also speak of the opioid nature of activity, since for its implementation a person creates and uses tools. Thirdly, activity is transformative: in the course of activity, a person changes the world around him and himself - his abilities, habits, personal qualities. Fourthly, in human activity its social character is manifested, since in the process of activity a person, as a rule, enters into various relationships with other people.

Human activity is carried out to satisfy his needs.

A need is a need experienced and realized by a person for what is necessary to maintain his body and develop his personality.

IN modern science different classifications of needs are applied. In their most general form, they can be grouped into three groups.

natural needs. In another way, they can be called innate, biological, physiological, organic, natural. These are the needs of people in everything that is necessary for their existence, development and reproduction. The natural ones include, for example, human needs for food, air, water, shelter, clothing, sleep, rest, etc.

Social needs. They are determined by a person's belonging to society. Human needs for labor activity, creation, creativity, social activity, communication with other people, recognition, achievements, i.e., in everything that is a product of social life, are considered social.

ideal needs. In another way they are called spiritual or cultural. These are the needs of people in everything that is necessary for them. spiritual development. The ideal ones include, for example, the need for self-expression, the creation and development of cultural values, the need for a person to know the world around him and his place in it, the meaning of his existence.

Natural social and ideal human needs are interrelated. Thus, the satisfaction of biological needs acquires many social facets in a person. For example, when satisfying hunger, a person takes care of the aesthetics of the table, the variety of dishes, the cleanliness and beauty of dishes, a pleasant company, etc.

Describing human needs, the American psychologist Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) described a person as a “desiring being.), which rarely reaches a state of complete, complete satisfaction. If one need is satisfied, another one rises to the surface and directs the person's attention and efforts.

The same feature of human needs was emphasized by the Russian psychologist S. L. Rubinshtein (1889-1960), speaking of the "unsatisfactory" needs that a person satisfies in the course of his activity.

activity theory in domestic science developed by psychologist A. N. Leontiev (1903-1979). He described the structure of human activity, highlighting in it the goal, means and result.

STRUCTURE OF ACTIVITY AND ITS MOTIVATION

Every human activity is determined by the goals that he sets for himself. We have already talked about this, touching upon such a feature of human activity as its conscious character. The goal is a conscious image of the anticipated result, the achievement of which is directed by the activity. For example, an architect first mentally imagines the image of a new building, and then embodies his idea in the drawings. The mental image of the new building is the anticipated result.

Certain means of activity help to achieve the desired result. So, in the educational activity familiar to you, the means are textbooks and teaching aids, maps, tables, layouts, devices, etc. They help the assimilation of knowledge and the development of the necessary learning skills.

In the course of activity, certain products (results) of activity arise. These are material and spiritual goods. forms of communication between people, social conditions and relationships, as well as abilities, skills, knowledge of the person himself. A consciously set goal is embodied in the results of activity.

And why does a person put forward a particular goal? He is motivated to do so. “A goal is that for which a person acts; a motive is why a person acts, ”explained the domestic psychologist V. A. Krutetsky.

A motive is a motive for an activity. At the same time, the same activity can be caused by different motives. For example, students read, i.e. they perform the same activity. But one student can read, feeling the need for knowledge. Another - because of the desire to please parents. The third is driven by the desire to get a good grade. The fourth wants to assert itself. At the same time, the same motive can lead to different activities. For example, in an effort to assert himself in his team, a student can prove himself in educational, sports, and social activities.

Usually human activity is determined not by any one motive and goal, but by a whole system of motives and goals. There is a combination, or, one might say, a composition, of both goals and motives. And this composition cannot be reduced to any of them, nor to their simple sum.

In the motives of human activity, his needs, interests, beliefs, ideals are manifested. It is motives that give meaning to human activity.

Any activity appears before us as a chain of actions. An integral part, or, in other words, a separate act, of an activity is called an action. For example, educational activity consists of such actions as reading educational literature, listening to teachers' explanations, taking notes, conducting laboratory work, doing exercises, solving problems, etc.

If the goal is set, the results are mentally presented, the procedure for carrying out actions is outlined, the means and methods of action are chosen, then it can be argued that the activity is carried out quite consciously. However, in real life, the process of activity takes it out of the shores of any goals, intentions, motives. The emerging result of activity turns out to be poorer or richer than the initial plan.

Under the influence of strong feelings and other stimuli, a person is capable of acting without a sufficiently conscious goal. Such actions are called unconscious or impulsive actions.

Human activity always proceeds on the basis of previously created objective prerequisites and certain social relations. For example, agricultural activities during Ancient Rus' fundamentally different from modern agricultural activities. Remember who owned the land in those days, who cultivated it and with what tools, what crops depended on, who owned agricultural products, how they were redistributed in society.

The conditionality of activity by objective social prerequisites testifies to its specific historical character.

VARIETY OF ACTIVITIES

Depending on the variety of needs of a person and society, a variety of specific types of human activity is also formed.

Based on various grounds, there are various types of activities. Depending on the characteristics of a person's relationship to the world around him, activities are divided into practical and spiritual. Practical activity is aimed at the transformation of real objects of nature and society. Spiritual activity is associated with a change in people's consciousness.

When a person's activity is correlated with the course of history, with social progress, then they single out an aggressive or reactionary orientation of activity, as well as a constructive or destructive one. Based on the material studied in the history course, you can give examples of events in which these activities were manifested.

Depending on the compliance of the activity with the existing general cultural values, social norms, legal and illegal, moral and immoral activities are determined.

In connection with the social forms of association of people in order to carry out activities, collective, mass, and individual activities are distinguished.

Depending on the presence or absence of novelty of goals, results of activities, methods of its implementation, monotonous, template ones are distinguished. monotonous activity, which is carried out strictly according to the rules, instructions, new in such activity is minimized, and most often completely absent, and innovative, inventive, creative activity. The word "creativity" is used to denote an activity that generates something qualitatively new, previously unknown. Creative activity is distinguished by originality, uniqueness, originality. It is important to emphasize that elements of creativity can find a place in any activity. And the less it is regulated by rules, instructions, the more opportunities for creativity it has.

Depending on the public spheres in which the activity takes place, economic, political, social activity, etc. are distinguished. In addition, in each sphere of society, certain types of human activity characteristic of it are distinguished. For example, the economic sphere is characterized by production and consumer activities. Political is characterized by state, military, international activities. For the spiritual sphere of society - scientific, educational, leisure.

Considering the process of becoming human personality, domestic psychology identifies the following main activities of people. Firstly, it is a hierarchy: subject, plot-role-playing, intellectual, sports. Game activity is focused not so much on a specific result, but on the game process itself - its rules, situation, imaginary environment. She prepares a person for creative activity and life in society.

Secondly, this teaching is an activity aimed at acquiring knowledge and methods of action.

Thirdly, it is labor - a type of activity aimed at achieving a practically useful result.

Often, along with the game, learning and work, communication is distinguished as the main activity of people - the establishment and development of mutual relations, contacts between people. Communication includes the exchange of information, assessments, feelings and specific actions.

Studying the features of the manifestation of human activity, they distinguish external and internal activity. External activity is manifested in the form of movements, muscle efforts, actions with real objects. The internal occurs through mental actions. In the course of this activity, human activity is manifested not in real movements, but in ideal models created in the process of thinking. There is a close relationship and complex relationship between these two activities. The inner activity, figuratively speaking, plans the outer one. it arises on the basis of the external and is realized through it. this is important to take into account when considering the connection between activity and consciousness.

CONSCIOUSNESS AND ACTIVITY

Consciousness is the ability inherent only in man to reproduce reality in ideal images.

For centuries, the problem of consciousness has been the scene of sharp ideological disputes. Representatives of different philosophical schools give different answers to the question about the nature of consciousness and the features of its formation. The natural-scientific approach opposes religious-idealistic views in these disputes. Proponents of the natural-scientific approach consider consciousness to be a manifestation of the functions of the brain, secondary in comparison with the bodily organization of a person. Supporters of religious-idealistic views, on the contrary, consider consciousness to be primary, and the “corporeal” person is its derivative.

But, despite the differences in the interpretation of the nature of consciousness, both of them note that it is associated with speech and goal-setting human activity. What consciousness is, what it is, is evidenced by the language of people and cultural objects - the results of labor, works of art, etc.

Based on a natural science approach, domestic psychology developed the doctrine of the formation of stable structures of human consciousness in early age by interacting with adults. According to this teaching, each person, in the course of individual development, joins consciousness, i.e., joint knowledge, through the acquisition of language. And thanks to this, his individual consciousness is formed. Thus, a person from his birth enters the world of objects created by previous generations. As a result of communication with other people, he learns the purposeful use of these objects.

Precisely because man relates to objects outside world with understanding, with knowledge, the way he relates to the world is called consciousness. Any sensual image of an object, any sensation or representation, having a certain meaning and meaning, becomes a part of consciousness. On the other hand, a number of sensations, human experiences are beyond the scope of consciousness. They lead to little conscious, impulsive actions, which were mentioned earlier, and this affects human activity, sometimes distorting its results.

Activity, in turn, contributes to changes in human consciousness, its development. Consciousness is formed by activity in order to at the same time influence this activity, determine and regulate it. Practically realizing their creative ideas born in consciousness, people transform nature, society and themselves. In this sense, human consciousness not only reflects the objective world, but also creates it. Having absorbed historical experience, knowledge and methods of thinking, having acquired certain skills and abilities, a person masters reality. At the same time, he sets goals, creates projects for future tools, and consciously regulates his activities.

Justifying unity. activity and consciousness, domestic science has developed a doctrine of activity, which is leading for each age period of a person's life. The word "leading" emphasizes, firstly, that it is she who forms the most important personality traits at this age stage. secondly, in line with the leading activity, all its other types develop.

For example, for a child before entering school, the leading type of activity is a game, although he already studies and works a little (at home with his parents or in kindergarten). The leading activity of a student is teaching. But, despite the fact that work occupies an important place in his life, in his free time he still continues to play with pleasure. Many researchers consider communication to be the leading activity of a teenager. At the same time, the teenager continues to learn and new favorite games appear in his life. For an adult, the leading activity is work, but in the evenings he can study, and devote his free time to sports or mind games, communication.

Concluding our conversation about activity and consciousness, let us once again return to the definition of activity. Human activity, or, what can be considered a synonym, conscious activity, is the activity of a person aimed at the implementation of the set goals related to the satisfaction of his needs.

PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS

1 Learn to set specific goals and determine the best means to achieve them. This gives the activity a conscious character, allows you to control its course and, if necessary, make certain adjustments.

2 Remember: it is important to see not only the immediate, but also the distant goals of your activities. This will help to overcome difficulties, will not let you stop halfway without reaching the goal.

3 Show concern for the diversity of your activities. This will make it possible to meet different needs and develop different interests.

4 Do not forget the importance of inner activity in people's lives. This will help you to be attentive to the opinions, emotions, feelings of others, to show delicacy in your relationships with other people.

From the work of the modern domestic psychologist V. A. Petrovsky "Personality in psychology: the paradigm of subjectness."

For example, we are convinced that any activity has an author (“subject”), that it is always directed to one or another thing (“object”), that at first it is consciousness, then activity. In addition, we have no doubt that activity is a process and that it can be observed from the outside, or, in any case, “from within” - through the eyes of the person himself. Everything is so, as long as we do not take into account the advancement of a person towards an already accepted goal ... But if we make the movement of activity the subject of attention, then it suddenly turns out that everything said about its structure loses its distinctness ... The author loses "sharpness"; the orientation of activity toward an object gives way to orientation toward another person... the process of activity breaks up into many branching and again merging "brooks-transitions"... instead of consciousness preceding and directing activity, it itself turns out to be something secondary, derived from activity... And all this is due to the tendencies of its own movement, self-development of activity....

There is always an element of discrepancy between what you strive for and what you achieve ... Regardless of whether the idea turns out to be higher than the embodiment or, conversely, the embodiment surpasses the idea, the discrepancy between the aspiration and the effects of the actions taken stimulates the activity of a person, the movement of his activity. And as a result, a new activity is born, and not only one's own, but, possibly, other people's.

Questions and tasks for the document

1. Based on the text of the document, explain what an object and a subject of activity are. Give concrete examples of objects and subjects of activity various kinds.
2. Find in the text of the document the lines where the author talks about the movement of the activity. What meaning does he put into these words? What appears as a result of the movement of activity?
3. How, according to the author, are activity and consciousness related?

SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS

1. What is an activity?
2. What features are inherent in human activity?
H. How are activities and needs related?
4. What is the motive of activity? How is motive different from purpose? What is the role of motives in human activity?
5. Define the need. Name the main groups of human needs and give specific examples.
6. What can be attributed to the results (products) of human activity?
7. Name the types of human activities. Expand on specific examples of their diversity.
8. How are activities and

Activities are certain actions that are performed by a person in order to produce something significant for himself, or for the people around him. This is a meaningful, multi-component and quite serious occupation, which is fundamentally different from recreation and entertainment.

Definition

The main discipline, which training course studies human activity, - social science. The first thing you need to know in order to correctly answer a question on this topic is the basic definition of the concept under study. However, there may be several such definitions. Another one says that activity is such a form of human activity, which is aimed not only at adapting the body to the environment, but also at its qualitative transformation.

All living beings interact with the environment. However, animals are only capable of adapting to the world and its conditions; they cannot change it in any way. But man differs from animals in that he has a special form of interaction with the environment, which is called activity.

Main Components

Also, for a good answer to a question in social science about human activity, you need to know about the concepts of object and subject. The subject is the one who performs the action. It doesn't have to be a single person. The subject can also be a group of people, an organization or a country. The object of activity in social science is that on which the activity is specifically directed. It could be another person, Natural resources, and any spheres of public life. The presence of a goal is one of the main conditions under which human activity is possible. Social science, in addition to the goal, also highlights the action component. It is carried out in accordance with the goal.

Action types

The expediency of activity is an indicator of whether a person is moving towards the result that is important to him. The goal is the image of this result, to which the subject of activity strives, and the action is a direct step aimed at realizing the goal facing the person. The German scientist M. Weber identified several types of actions:

1. Purposeful (in other words - rational). This action is carried out by a person in accordance with the goal. Means to achieve the desired result are chosen consciously, possible side effects of activity are taken into account.
2. Value-rational. Actions of this kind occur in accordance with the beliefs that a person has.
3. affective is an action that is caused by emotional experiences.
4. Traditional- based on habit or tradition.

Other Activity Components

Describing human activity, social science also highlights the concepts of the result, as well as the means to achieve the goal. The result is understood as the final product of the entire process carried out by the subject. Moreover, it can be of two types: positive and negative. Belonging to the first or second category is determined by the correspondence of the result to the goal.

The reasons why a person can get a negative result can be both external and internal. To external include a change in environmental conditions for the worse. Internal factors include such factors as setting an initially unattainable goal, the wrong choice of means, the inferiority of actions, or the lack of the necessary skills or knowledge.

Communication

One of the main types of human activity in social science is communication. The purpose of any kind of communication is to get some result. Here, the main goal is often the exchange of necessary information, emotions or ideas. Communication is one of the basic qualities of a person, as well as an indispensable condition for socialization. Without communication, a person becomes asocial.

A game

Another type of human activity in social science is a game. It is common to both humans and animals. Situations of adult life are modeled in children's play. The main unit of children's play is the role - one of the main conditions for the development of consciousness and behavior of children. Play is a type of activity in which social experience is recreated and assimilated. It allows you to learn the methods of carrying out social actions, as well as master the objects of human culture. Play therapy has found wide distribution as a form of correctional work.

Work

It is also an important type of human activity. Without labor, socialization does not occur, but it is important not only for the development of the individual. Labor is a necessary condition for the survival and further progress of human civilization. At the level of a single individual, work is an opportunity to ensure one's own existence, to feed oneself and one's loved ones, as well as an opportunity to realize one's natural inclinations and abilities.

Education

This is another important type of human activity. The topic of social science devoted to activity is interesting because it considers its various types, allows you to consider the whole variety of types of human activity. Despite the fact that the process of human learning originates in the womb, over a certain period of time this type of activity becomes purposeful.

For example, in the 50s of the last century, children began to be taught at the age of 7-8 years; in the 90s, mass education was introduced in schools from the age of six. However, even before the start of purposeful learning, the child absorbs a huge amount of information from the outside world. The great Russian writer L. N. Tolstoy emphasized that at the age of up to 5 years, a small person learns much more than in the rest of his life. Of course, one can argue with this statement, but there is a fair amount of truth in it.

The main difference from other types of activity

Quite often schoolchildren receive as homework question on social science: "Activity is a way of existence of people." In the process of preparing for such a lesson, the most important thing to note is the characteristic difference between human activity and the usual adaptation to the environment, which is characteristic of animals. One of these types of activity, which is aimed directly at transforming the world around us, is creativity. This type of occupation allows a person to create something completely new, qualitatively transforming the surrounding reality.

Activity types

The time when students go through the social science topic "Man and Activity", according to the Federal State Educational Standard - grade 6. At this age, students, as a rule, are already old enough to distinguish between types of activity, as well as to understand their importance for the overall development of a person. In science, the following types are distinguished:

• Practical- aimed directly at the transformation external environment. This type, in turn, is subdivided into additional subcategories - material and production activities, as well as socially transformative ones.
• Spiritual- an activity that is aimed at changing the consciousness of a person. This type is also subdivided into additional categories: cognitive (science and art); value-oriented (determining the negative or positive attitude of people to various phenomena of the surrounding world); and predictive (planning for possible changes) activities.

All these types are closely related to each other. For example, before carrying out reforms (relate to it is necessary to analyze their possible consequences for the country (forecasting activity.

There are various classifications of activities:

1. According to the method of implementation:

- Practical activities(transformation of objects of nature and society). It includes material and production activities (transformation of nature) and social transformation (transformation of society);

- spiritual activity, associated with a change in people's consciousness. It includes:

cognitive activity(reflection of reality in artistic and scientific form, in myths and religious teachings);

Value-oriented activity (the attitude of people to the phenomena of the surrounding world, the formation of their worldview);

Prognostic activity (planning and anticipation of possible changes in reality).

2. By the nature of human activity:

Creative activity - production of material and spiritual values;

Destructive activity - a negative impact on nature (environmental pollution) and society (wars, invasions, etc.).

3. By creative role in social development:

Reproductive activity - aimed at obtaining known result labor;

Productive activity - the production of new ideas, ways to achieve the goal.

4. Depending on the compliance with general cultural values ​​and social norms:

legal and illegal;

Moral and immoral.

5. Depending on the novelty of the goals, results, means:

Monotonous, template, monotonous;

Innovative, inventive, creative.

6. Depending on the public spheres in which the activity takes place

Economic (industrial, consumer, etc.);

Political (state, military, international, etc.);

social;

Spiritual (scientific, educational, leisure, etc.)

7. According to the way a person is formed as a person:

- a game;

Communication.

Work- expedient social activity of a person aimed at transforming the environment and achieving a socially useful result. A distinctive feature of labor activity is the originality of its motives. Labor is always aimed at achieving programmed results, pre-expected results. Labor, as an expedient activity, began with the manufacture of tools. The presence of tools and special training is a specific feature of human labor activity. Only humans can act on environment using specially designed tools. Skill, skills, knowledge are necessary for success. In any labor activity, its participants solve some specific task, plan their actions, anticipate the result.

A game- the primary type of human activity, an imaginary representation of reality in artificially simulated situations. The main motive is not in the result, but in the process itself. Games often have the character of entertainment, pursuing the goal of obtaining recreation. Some forms of gaming activity take on the character of rituals, training sessions, and sports hobbies. The most significant feature of gaming activity is its duality:

On the one hand, the player performs a real action;

On the other hand, actions are conditional. The game in its developed form includes the roles that the players take on. The role is compliance with the accepted (conditional) norms of behavior in a game situation.

Being engaged in any activity, a person learns something, and, therefore, we change ourselves. Target teachings- the acquisition of knowledge and mastery of the methods of action necessary for successful interaction with the world.

In the process of joint work, people communicate with each other, exchange practical experience and methods of activity, i.e. are situated in communication.

In modern domestic science, there are different points perspective on how activity and communication are related:

1) these concepts are identified;

2) activity and communication are opposed to each other;

3) communication is considered along with activity as an independent, but equal phenomenon.

IN teaching aids the first point of view is more often presented.

Communication- this is the process of interconnection and interaction of people and social groups, during which there is an exchange of information, experience, results of activities. In the world of communication, the subject interacts not with the object, but with the subject.

Depending on the diversity of subjects, the following types of communication are distinguished:

Communication between real subjects (two people);

Communication of a real subject with an illusory partner (communication with an animal),

Communication of a real subject with an imaginary partner (internal dialogue);

Communication of imaginary partners (artistic characters).

All activities are interconnected and in everyday life it is difficult to separate them from each other. So, in the process of labor, a person can communicate with a partner, arranging a game in the form of a competition, learning new skills, and in this process gain fundamentally new knowledge about the world, learning its laws. A number of scientists single out as a type of activity along with work, play, communication and knowledge(Teaching in this case is interpreted as a particular type of knowledge).

Activity- this is a specifically human activity, regulated by consciousness, generated by needs and aimed at the knowledge and transformation of the external world and the person himself.

The main feature of activity is that its content is not entirely determined by the need that gave rise to it. The need as a motive (motivation) gives impetus to activity, but the very forms and content of activity determined by public goals, requirements and experience.

Distinguish three main activities: play, teaching and work. aim games is the "activity" itself, not its results. Human activity aimed at acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities is called teaching. is an activity whose purpose is the production of socially necessary products.

Activity characteristics

Activity is understood as a specifically human way active relationship to the world - a process in which a person creatively transforms the world, turning himself into an active subject, and the mastered phenomena into an object of his activity.

Under subject here is understood the source of activity, actor. Since, as a rule, a person shows activity, then most often it is he who is called the subject.

object call the passive, passive, inert side of the relationship, on which the activity is carried out. The object of activity can be a natural material or object (land in agricultural activities), another person (a student as an object of study) or the subject himself (in the case of self-education, sports training).

To understand the activity, several important characteristics of it should be taken into account.

Man and activity are inextricably linked. Activity is an indispensable condition for human life: it created man himself, preserved him in history and predetermined the progressive development of culture. Therefore, a person does not exist outside of activity. The reverse is also true: there is no activity without a person. Only man is capable of labor, spiritual and other transformative activity.

Activity is the transformation of the environment. Animals adapt to natural conditions. Man is able to actively change these conditions. For example, he is not limited to collecting plants for food, but grows them in the course of agricultural activities.

Activity acts as a creative, constructive activity: a person in the process of his activity goes beyond the boundaries of natural possibilities, creating something new that did not previously exist in nature.

Thus, in the process of activity, a person creatively transforms reality, himself and his social ties.

The essence of activity is revealed in more detail in the course of its structural analysis.

The main forms of human activity

Human activity is carried out in (industrial, household, natural environment).

Activity- active interaction of a person with the environment, the result of which should be its usefulness, requiring a person to have high mobility of nervous processes, fast and accurate movements, increased activity of perception, emotional stability.

The study of a person in the process is carried out by ergonomics, the purpose of which is the optimization of labor activity on the basis of rational consideration of human capabilities.

The whole variety of forms of human activity can be divided into two main groups according to the nature of the functions performed by a person - physical and mental labor.

Physical work

Physical work requires significant muscle activity, is characterized by a load on the musculoskeletal system and functional systems of the body (cardiovascular, respiratory, neuromuscular, etc.), and also requires increased energy costs from 17 to 25 mJ (4,000-6,000 kcal) and more per day.

Brainwork

Brainwork(intellectual activity) is a work that combines work related to the reception and processing of information, requiring tension of attention, memory, and activation of thinking processes. Daily energy consumption during mental work is 10-11.7 mJ (2000-2400 kcal).

The structure of human activity

The structure of activity is usually represented in a linear way, where each component follows the other in time.

Need → Motive → Purpose → Means → Action → Result

Let's consider each component of the activity one by one.

Need for action

Need- this is a need, dissatisfaction, a feeling of lack of something necessary for a normal existence. In order for a person to begin to act, an awareness of this need and its nature is necessary.

The most developed classification belongs to the American psychologist Abraham Maslow(1908-1970) and is known as the pyramid of needs (Figure 2.2).

Maslow divided needs into primary, or innate, and secondary, or acquired. These, in turn, include:

• physiological - in food, water, air, clothing, warmth, sleep, cleanliness, shelter, physical recreation, etc.;
• existential— safety and security, inviolability of personal property, job security, confidence in tomorrow etc.;
• social - desire for belonging and belonging to any social group, team, etc. The values ​​of affection, friendship, love are based on these needs;
• prestigious - based on the desire for respect, recognition by others of personal achievements, on the values ​​of self-affirmation, leadership;
• spiritual - focused on self-expression, self-actualization, creative development and use their skills, abilities and knowledge.
• The hierarchy of needs has been changed many times and supplemented by various psychologists. Maslow himself, in the later stages of his research, added three additional groups of needs to it:
• cognitive- in knowledge, skill, understanding, research. These include the desire to discover new things, curiosity, the desire for self-knowledge;
• aesthetic- the desire for harmony, order, beauty;
• transcending— a selfless desire to help others in spiritual self-improvement, in their desire for self-expression.

According to Maslow, in order to satisfy higher, spiritual needs, it is necessary to first satisfy those needs that occupy a place in the pyramid below them. If the needs of any level are fully satisfied, a person has a natural need to satisfy the needs of a higher level.

Motives of activity

Motive - a need-based, conscious drive that justifies and justifies activity. The need will become a motive if it is realized not just as, but as a guide to action.

In the process of forming a motive, not only needs, but also other motives are involved. As a rule, needs are mediated by interests, traditions, beliefs, social attitudes, etc.

Interest is a specific reason for action that determines. Although the needs of all people are the same, different social groups have their own interests. For example, the interests of workers and factory owners, men and women, youth and pensioners are different. So, innovations are more important for pensioners, traditions are more important for pensioners; Entrepreneurs have rather material interests, while people of art have spiritual ones. Each person also has his own personal interests, based on individual inclinations, sympathies (people listen to different music, engage in different types sports, etc.).

Traditions represent a social and cultural heritage passed down from generation to generation. We can talk about religious, professional, corporate, national (for example, French or Russian) traditions, etc. For the sake of some traditions (for example, military ones), a person may limit his primary needs (changing safety and security for activities in high-risk conditions).

Beliefs- firm, principled views of the world, based on the worldview ideals of a person and implying a person's willingness to give up a number of needs (for example, comfort and money) for the sake of what he considers right (for the sake of preserving honor and dignity).

Settings- the predominant orientation of a person to certain institutions of society, which are superimposed on needs. For example, a person may be oriented towards religious values, or towards material enrichment, or towards public opinion. Accordingly, he will act differently in each case.

IN complex types activity, it is usually possible to identify not one motive, but several. In this case, the main motive is singled out, which is considered to be driving.

Activity goals

Target - it is a conscious idea of ​​the result of activity, anticipation of the future. Any activity involves goal setting, i.e. the ability to set goals independently. Animals, unlike humans, cannot set goals themselves: their program of activity is predetermined and expressed in instincts. Man is able to form his own programs, creating something that has never been in nature. Since there is no goal-setting in animal activity, it is not an activity. Moreover, if the animal never presents the results of its activity in advance, then the person, starting the activity, keeps in mind the image of the expected object: before creating something in reality, he creates it in his mind.

However, the goal can be complex and sometimes requires a series of intermediate steps to achieve it. For example, to plant a tree, you need to purchase a seedling, find a suitable place, take a shovel, dig a hole, place the seedling in it, water it, etc. Ideas about intermediate results called tasks. Thus, the goal is broken down into specific tasks: if all these tasks are solved, then the overall goal will be achieved.

Funds used in activities

Facilities - these are techniques used in the course of activity, methods of action, objects, etc. For example, to learn social science, you need lectures, textbooks, assignments. To be a good specialist, you need to get professional education, have work experience, constantly practice in their activities, etc.

The means must match the ends in two senses. First, the means must be proportionate to the end. In other words, they cannot be insufficient (otherwise the activity will be fruitless) or excessive (otherwise energy and resources will be wasted). For example, one cannot build a house if there are not enough materials for it; it is also pointless to buy materials several times more than you need to build it.

Secondly, the means must be moral: immoral means cannot be justified by the nobility of the end. If the goals are immoral, then all activity is immoral (on this occasion, the hero of F.M. Dostoevsky's novel "The Brothers Karamazov" Ivan asked if the kingdom of world harmony is worth one tear of a tortured child).

Action

Action - an element of activity that has a relatively independent and conscious task. The activity consists of individual actions. For example, teaching activity consists of preparing and giving lectures, conducting seminars, preparing assignments, etc.

The German sociologist Max Weber (1865-1920) singled out the following types of social actions:

• purposeful - actions aimed at achieving a reasonable song. At the same time, a person clearly calculates all means and possible obstacles (a general planning a battle; a businessman organizing an enterprise; a teacher preparing a lecture);
• value-rational- actions based on beliefs, principles, moral and aesthetic values ​​(for example, the refusal of a prisoner to transfer valuable information to the enemy, saving a drowning person at the risk of his own life);
• affective - actions committed under the influence of strong feelings - hatred, fear (for example, flight from the enemy or spontaneous aggression);
• traditional- actions based on habit, often an automatic reaction developed on the basis of customs, beliefs, patterns, etc. (for example, following certain rituals in a wedding ceremony).

The basis of activity is the actions of the first two types, since only they have a conscious goal and are creative in nature. Affects and traditional actions can only exert some influence on the course of activity as auxiliary elements.

Special forms of action are: deeds - actions that have a value-rational, moral value, and deeds - actions that have a high positive social value. For example, helping a person is an act, winning an important battle is an act. Drinking a glass of water is a common action that is neither an act nor an act. The word "act" is often used in jurisprudence to refer to an action or omission that violates legal norms. For example, in the legislation "a crime is an illegal, socially dangerous, guilty act."

Result of activity

Result- this is the final result, the state in which the need is satisfied (in whole or in part). For example, the result of learning can be knowledge, skills and abilities, the result -, the result scientific activity- ideas and inventions. The result of the activity can be itself, because in the course of activity it develops and changes.

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Activity human - a type of human activity aimed at the knowledge and creative transformation of the world around, including himself and the conditions of his existence.
The main activities are play, study, work.
A game- a type of unproductive activity, the purpose of which is entertainment, recreation, and not the production of material goods. Character traits games:

• existence of rules

• conditional situation

• use of replacement items

• goal - satisfaction of interest

• personal development (enrichment, necessary skills)

Game activity does not create socially significant results, but it means a lot for the formation of a person as a subject of activity.
Teaching (study)- a type of human activity, as a result of which there is an acquisition of knowledge, skills, and mastery of the methods of action necessary for successful interaction with the world.
Teaching can be organized, unorganized, self-educational.
1. Organized learning - the learning process that is carried out in educational institutions.
2. Unorganized (informal) learning - a learning process that is carried out in other activities as their side, additional result.
3. Self-education - independent learning, the acquisition of systematic knowledge in any field of science, technology, culture, political life, etc., which implies the direct personal interest of the student in an organic combination with independent study of the material.
Learning activities is essential condition development of human consciousness and preparing him for independent life in society. Continues to occupy a large place after graduation.
Essence - mastering the experience of previous generations. The result is the assimilation of values ​​and norms of national culture.
Work- a type of human activity aimed at achieving certain goals, at preserving, modifying, adapting the environment to meet human needs.
Characteristic features of labor:

• expediency

• focus on achieving programmed, expected results

• skill, ability, knowledge

• practical utility

• getting a result

• personal development

• transformation of the human environment

Essence - the transformation of objects of the material world. The result is the satisfaction of material needs and the creation of material and spiritual wealth.
The specific difference of labor from others from play and study is the creation of products useful for a person, both material and spiritual.
Scientists have developed the doctrine of activity , which is leading for each age period of a person's life, because

• that it is she who forms the most important personality traits at each age stage.

• that in its course all other types of activity develop during a person's life.

Age period	Leading activity	Related/additional activity
Child before school		Gradual learning and hard work
Schoolboy	Teaching (study)	Labor, play in free time
Teenager	Communication (as many researchers believe)	Teaching and new games
Adult		Study, play, socialize in your free time

Consider examples teachings (study).

Organized	1. Education in secondary educational institutions (schools). 2.Professional training educational institutions(lyceums). 3. Education in higher educational institutions (universities, institutes, etc.).
Unorganized (informal)	1.Trainings - "Development of managerial skills", "Art public speaking" etc. 2. Seminars - "Active sales", etc. 3.Consultations on various topics. 4. Courses Intensive Courses « English language. Conversational practice”, the course “WEB-design”, the course “Real estate agent (realtor)”, etc.
self-education	Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov was engaged in self-education: he learned to read and write early and by the age of 14 he had read all the books that he could get: Magnitsky's Arithmetic, Slavic grammar Smotrytsky and the rhyme-making Psalter of Simeon of Polotsk. In 1730 he went to Moscow and, hiding his origin, entered the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy, where he received a good training in ancient languages ​​and other humanities. Latin language knew perfectly, was later recognized as one of the best Latinists in Europe.

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Used Books:
1. USE 2009. Social science. Reference book / O.V.Kishenkova. - M.: Eksmo, 2008. 2. Social science: Unified State Exam-2008: real tasks / ed. O.A. Kotova, T.E. Liskova. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2008. 3. Social science: a complete reference book / P.A. Baranov, A.V. Vorontsov, S.V. Shevchenko; ed. P.A. Baranova. - M.: AST: Astrel; Vladimir: VKT, 2010. 4. Social science: profile. level: textbook. For 10 cells. general education Institutions / L.N. Bogolyubov, A.Yu. Lazebnikova, N.M. Smirnova and others, ed. LN Bogolyubova and others - M.: Education, 2007. 5. Social science. Grade 10: textbook. for general education institutions: a basic level of/ L.N. Bogolyubov, Yu.I. Averyanov, N.I. Gorodetskaya and others; ed. L.N. Bogolyubova; Ros. acad. Sciences, Ros. acad. education, publishing house "Enlightenment". 6th ed. - M.: Education, 2010.
Used Internet resources
Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia