2.2. Reforms of the 90s: from cooperation to privatization At the end of the 80s, Soviet society was dominated by an atmosphere of dissatisfaction with the economic situation of the country. The growth of production, its efficiency, and the increase in the living standards of the population have stopped. Priority

60-70s - this is a time of radical transformations in Russia, which affected almost all the most important aspects of the life of society and the state. In a relatively short period of time, reforms were carried out in the country in the fields of economics, management, military affairs, education and culture.

In 1855, when cannonade thundered near the walls of besieged Sevastopol, Nicholas I suddenly died. His eldest son Alexander II ascended the throne, who went down in Russian history under the name of the Liberator.

Alexander II ascended the throne as a mature man - at 36 years old. He was neither a liberal nor a reactionary, and before his accession he did not have his own economic and political program. Not accepting ideas and principles abstract from life, Alexander Nikolaevich was a man of action. He understood the need for compromises and concessions in the interests of state life. Brought up on the ideas of humanism by the poet V. A. Zhukovsky, Alexander II was inclined to think about the need for changes in the political sphere.

Economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century. (European part)

The new tsar understood that the existing order in Russia needed to be changed. He returned the Decembrists from Siberia and allowed free travel abroad. Alexander appointed new people, smart and educated, to many government posts. He introduced his brother Konstantin, who was a staunch liberal, into the Cabinet of Ministers.

Liberal camp

When preparing reforms, the tsar relied on liberal officials. These were thinking, intelligent people, united by similar views on the upcoming transformations and methods of their implementation. They were close to progressive-minded public figures, writers, scientists.

There were also supporters of liberal reforms among the nobility, although they constituted a clear minority. The liberals pinned all their hopes and aspirations on the reforms carried out by the government.

Revolutionary democracy

From the second half of the 50s. There is a consolidation of revolutionary democratic forces. In terms of their social status, the revolutionary democrats were mainly commoners, although there were also nobles among them. Unlike the liberals, they did not believe in reforms and were supporters of the peasant revolution. They combined the idea of ​​revolution with utopian socialism and demanded the free transfer of all land to the peasants.

Alexander Ivanovich Herzen, revolutionary democrat, philosopher, writer and publicist. Since 1847 - in exile; founder of the Russian free press (almanac "Polar Star", newspaper "Bell"), directed against serfdom and autocracy

Nikolai Aleksandrovich Dobrolyubov, literary critic and publicist. Opposed the monarchy and serfdom, revolutionary, utopian socialist

Nikolai Gavrilovich Chernyshevsky, revolutionary democrat, scientist, writer, literary critic. In 1856-1862. one of the leaders of the Sovremennik magazine

The largest ideological center of revolutionary democratic forces in Russia was the journal Sovremennik, in which Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, Nekrasov participated, and abroad - “The Bell” of Herzen and Ogarev.

Peasant reform

The main reform that was being prepared by the government was the peasant reform, that is, the abolition of serfdom. Most of the landowners were outraged and scared when they found out about this. The landowners tried to convince the king that he should cancel serfdom under no circumstances is it possible. But Alexander II saw that peasant unrest was intensifying every year, and understood that the peasants could no longer tolerate the power of the landowners. “It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait for the people to abolish it from below,” the tsar answered the disgruntled nobles.

On February 19, 1861, serfdom was abolished. Peasants received personal freedom. From now on they could not be sold, bought or given as a gift. Former serfs were declared “free rural inhabitants” and received civil rights. They could enter into contracts and transactions, choose their occupation, move to other classes (burghers, merchants), and enter educational institutions. Landowners were assigned ownership rights to all lands on their estates. The peasants received plots of land for use from the landowner, which they could later purchase as their own. Before the redemption of plots, peasants (they were called “temporarily obligated”) had to bear duties in favor of the landowner - pay quitrent or serve corvee. Having come out for redemption with the consent or at the request of the master, becoming a “peasant owner”, they had to pay redemption payments to the state for the loan received. The liberation of 23 million landowners with land was a unique event not only in Russian, but also in world history.

Zemstvo and city reforms

In 1864, the zemstvo reform was carried out. In accordance with it, all-class local self-government bodies were created in provinces and districts, which were called zemstvos.

Zemstvos were provided with solutions to local economic issues: construction and maintenance of roads and bridges, zemstvo schools, shelters, almshouses, medical and veterinary care, surveying work, statistical records, etc. Zemstvos made a significant contribution to the organization of medical care, especially in the countryside, and the creation of zemstvo schools.

In continuation and addition to the zemstvo reform, a reform of city self-government was carried out in 1870. In 509 cities of Russia, new bodies of city government were created - city councils, which elected executive bodies- city governments. The city duma and city government were headed by the mayor. Since the elections were conducted on the basis of the bourgeois principle - property qualifications, representatives of the big bourgeoisie prevailed in city government. All those who did not pay city taxes, i.e. workers, artisans, servants, minor employees, and the intelligentsia, were excluded from participating in the elections.

In large cities, the mayor was appointed by the Minister of Internal Affairs, in small cities - by the governor. The range of affairs of city institutions included various economic issues: improvement, trade, local industry, education and health care, fire and sanitary measures, etc.

Urban reform contributed to the development of urban economy, improvement, and growth of the urban population.

Judicial reform

Conducted in 1864 The court reform was the most consistent bourgeois reform. It proclaimed the independence of the court from the administration: a judge could be removed from his post only by court. The old class courts were abolished. The preliminary investigation was carried out by forensic investigators who were not subordinate to the police. The court was declared all-class, that is, uniform and equal for all classes. The trial became open and transparent: representatives of the press and the public could attend court hearings; The representative of the prosecution - the prosecutor and the defendant's defense - the sworn attorney (lawyer) took part in the trial.

Criminal cases were tried with the participation of jurors from all classes, including peasants, who were chosen by lot. The jurors, after listening to the court arguments, made a decision on the guilt or innocence of the defendant. Their decision was binding on the judge. This was a significant achievement for democracy, which the reactionaries hated. “Court of the street”, “court of the crowd” - this is how they spoke contemptuously of trial by jury.

Military reform

In 1874, instead of conscription, universal conscription was introduced. The law established the terms of active military service for the ground forces (6 years) and the navy (7 years).

For those who have higher education the period of active military service was determined to be six months; with secondary education - 1.5 years; for persons who graduated from district schools and gymnasiums - 3 years and primary schools - 4 years. Not called up for active service military service only sons and sole breadwinners. Those who studied in secondary and higher educational institutions also received a deferment from conscription.

More attention was paid to the combat training of troops, new regulations and instructions were introduced, and the rearmament of the army with more modern weapons was accelerated. The creation of military schools and academies made it possible to improve the military training of officers. But, despite the changes, much in the army remained the same: drill and assault by officers, lack of rights for soldiers.

The reforms of 1861-1874, called “great”, brought the socio-political structure of Russia in line with the needs of the society of the second half of the 19th century V. Russia has entered a new, capitalist path of development.

During the reforms, censorship was weakened, and public problems began to be discussed publicly on the pages of newspapers and magazines.

Development of agriculture and industry

The abolition of serfdom gave impetus to the development of new socio-economic relations. After 1861, Russia quickly turned from an agrarian country into an agrarian-industrial one. Increased demand for products Agriculture on the world and domestic markets has increased the interest of owners in increasing the marketability of agriculture and livestock breeding. The growth of agricultural production was due to an increase in sown areas (on the southern and eastern outskirts), the introduction of multi-field crop rotation, and the use of mineral fertilizers and machinery. Over the 20 post-reform years, grain exports from Russia increased 3 times and amounted to 202 million poods in 1881. Russia has taken first place in the world in bread exports.

In the 40s XIX century The industrial revolution began in Russia. First in the textile and cotton industries, and then in other industries. For a successful transition from manufactory to factory, along with replacement manual labor machine, required a significant layer of free hired workers, a wide market for the sale of industrial products and an influx of large capital into production. With the abolition of serfdom, the industrial revolution moved faster and by the beginning of the 80s. in major industries was completed. Its social consequence was the rapid formation of the proletariat and the industrial bourgeoisie.

THIS IS INTERESTING TO KNOW

Alexander II in his youth, even before he became king, was a passionate hunter and, of course, could not ignore I. Turgenev’s “Notes of a Hunter,” published in 1846. Subsequently, he said that it was this book that convinced him of the need to abolish serfdom.

References:
V. S. Koshelev, I. V. Orzhekhovsky, V. I. Sinitsa / The World History Modern times XIX - early XX century, 1998.

RUSSIAN HISTORY

ABSTRACT

Great reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century. Alexander II .

Content:

I.I.Alexander II before his coronation and in the first years of his reign.

II.II."Great Reforms" of 1863-1874.

A. The need for reform.

B. Abolition of serfdom.

B. Zemstvo reform.

D. Urban reform.

D. Judicial reform.

E. Military reform.

G. Financial reforms.

H. Reforms in the field of education.

I. Reforms in the field of printing.

III.III.Murder of the Emperor.

IV.IV.The significance of the reforms of Alexander II in the history of the state.

I. I. Alexander II before his coronation and in the first years of his reign.

A Alexander II - Emperor of All Russia, the eldest son of Emperor Nikolai Pavlovich and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, was born in Moscow on April 17, 1818.

Naturally, great importance was given to the upbringing and education of the future monarch. His educators were General Merder (a company commander at the school of guard warrant officers, who had remarkable teaching abilities, “a gentle disposition and a rare mind”), M. M. Speransky, E. F. Kankrin. No less significant was the influence of another mentor - the famous poet Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky, the head of his class studies. I would like to dwell in more detail on Zhukovsky’s education system, which gave not only general knowledge the extensive set of subjects and four foreign languages ​​​​accepted at that time, but also purely special knowledge: about the state, its laws, finances, foreign policy and formed a worldview system. The basic principles of raising the Tsarevich looked like this:

WHO AM I? The doctrine of man, united by Christian doctrine.

WHAT WAS I? History, sacred history.

WHAT SHOULD I BE? Private and public morality.

WHAT AM I DESIGNED FOR? Revealed religion, metaphysics, the concept of God and the immortality of the soul.

And at the end (and not first) law, social history, state economics, statistics that follow from everything.

The knowledge gained was supported by numerous travels. He was the first of the royal family to visit (in 1837) Siberia, and the result of this visit was a mitigation of the fate of political exiles. Later, while in the Caucasus, the Tsarevich distinguished himself during an attack by the highlanders, for which he was awarded the order St. George 4th degree. In 1837, at the request of Nicholas I, he undertook a trip to Europe for educational purposes. He traveled around Switzerland, Austria, Italy and stayed for a long time in Berlin, Weimar, Munich, Vienna, Turin, Florence, Rome and Naples.

A big role in the life of Alexander II was played by a visit to Darmstadt, where he met Princess Maximiliana Wilhelmina Augusta Sophia Maria (born July 27, 1824), the adopted daughter of Duke Louis II of Hesse, who soon became the crown prince’s wife, Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna.

From the age of 16, Alexander successfully took part in management affairs, first sporadically, and then systematically. At the age of 26 he became a “full general” and had quite professional military training. IN last years the reign of Emperor Nicholas and during his travels he repeatedly replaced his father.

Alexander II ascended the throne on February 19, 1855 at the age of 36. He was to go down in history under the name of the Liberator. Already on the day of coronation, August 26, the sovereign's new manifesto was marked by a number of favors. Recruitment was suspended for three years, all government arrears, charges, etc. were forgiven; various criminals were released, or at least their sentences were commuted, including an amnesty for political prisoners - survivors of the Decembrists, Petrashevites, and participants in the Polish uprising of 1831; the admission of young Jews to recruits was canceled, and recruitment between the latter was ordered to be carried out on a general basis; free travel abroad was allowed, etc. But all these measures were only the threshold of those global reforms that marked the reign of Alexander II.

During this period, the Crimean War was in full swing and taking an unfavorable turn, where Russia had to deal with the combined forces of almost all the main European powers. Despite his love of peace, which was also known in Europe, Alexander expressed his firm determination to continue the fight and achieve peace, which was soon achieved. Representatives of seven states (Russia, France, Austria, England, Prussia, Sardinia and Turkey) gathered in Paris, and on March 18, 1856, a peace treaty was concluded. The Paris peace, although not beneficial for Russia, was still honorable for her in view of such numerous and strong opponents. However, its disadvantageous side - the limitation of Russia's naval forces on the Black Sea - was eliminated during the life of Alexander II.

II. “Great reforms” of the 60-70s.

A. The need for reform.

P The end of the Crimean War revealed many internal shortcomings of the Russian state. Change was needed, and the country was looking forward to it. Then the emperor uttered the words that became the slogan of Russia for a long time: “Let its internal prosperity be established and improved; let truth and mercy reign in its courts; let the desire for enlightenment and all useful activities develop everywhere and with renewed vigor...”

In the first place, of course, was the idea of ​​emancipating the serfs. In his speech to representatives of the Moscow nobility, Alexander II said: “it is better to abolish it from above than to wait for it to be abolished from below.” There was no other way out, since every year the peasants increasingly expressed their dissatisfaction with the existing system. The corvee form of exploitation of the peasant expanded, which caused crisis situations. First of all, the labor productivity of serfs began to decline, as landowners wanted to produce more products and thereby undermined the strength of the peasant economy. The most far-sighted landowners realized that forced labor was much inferior in productivity to hired labor (For example, large landowner A.I. Koshelev wrote about this in his article “Hunting is worse than bondage” in 1847). But hiring workers required considerable expenses from the landowner at a time when serf labor was free. Many landowners tried to introduce new farming systems, use the latest technology, purchase improved varieties of purebred livestock, etc. Unfortunately, such measures led them to ruin and, accordingly, to increased exploitation of the peasants. The debts of landowners' estates to credit institutions grew. Further development of the economy using the serf system was impossible. Moreover, having existed in Russia much longer than in European countries took on very harsh forms.

However, there is another point of view regarding this reform, according to which by the middle of the 19th century, serfdom had not yet exhausted its capabilities and protests against the government were very weak. Neither economic nor social catastrophe threatened Russia, but by maintaining serfdom, it could drop out of the ranks of the great powers.

The peasant reform entailed the transformation of all aspects of state and public life. A number of measures were envisaged to restructure local government, the judicial system, education and, later, the army. These were truly major changes, comparable only to the reforms of Peter I.

B. Abolition of serfdom.

3 In January 1857, the first significant step was taken, which served as the beginning of the reform: the creation of a Secret Committee under the direct supervision and chairmanship of the emperor himself. It included: Prince Orlov, Count Lanskoy, Count Bludov, Minister of Finance Brock, Count V.F. Adlerberg, Prince V.A. Dolgorukov, Minister of State Property M.N. Muravyov, Prince P.P. Gagarin, Baron M.A. Korf and Ya.I. Rostovtsev. The purpose of the committee was designated as “discussion of measures to organize the life of the landowner peasants.” Thus, the government tried to get initiative from the nobility in resolving this issue. The word “liberation” had not yet been spoken. But the committee acted very sluggishly. More precise actions began to be implemented later.

In February 1858. The Secret Committee was renamed the “Main Committee on Landowner Peasants Emerging from Serfdom,” and a year later (March 4, 1859) Editorial Commissions were established under the committee, which were responsible for reviewing materials prepared by provincial committees and drafting a law on the emancipation of peasants . There were two opinions here: the majority of landowners proposed to release the peasants without any land at all or with small plots, while the liberal minority proposed to release them with land for ransom. At first, Alexander II shared the point of view of the majority, but then came to the conclusion that it was necessary to allocate land to the peasants. Usually historians associate this decision with the strengthening of the peasant movement: the Tsar was afraid of a repetition of the “Pugachevism.” But not less important role The presence of an influential group in the government, called “liberal bureaucracy,” played a role here.

The draft “Regulations on Peasants” was practically prepared at the end of August 1859, but for some time it was subject to minor corrections and clarifications. In October 1860, the “Editing Commissions”, having completed their work, transferred the project to the Main Committee, where it was again discussed and underwent further changes, but in favor of the landowners. On January 28, 1861, the project was submitted to the final authority - the State Council, which accepted them with some changes, in the sense of reducing the size of the peasant plot.

Finally, on February 19, 1861, the “Regulations on Peasants Emerging from Serfdom,” which included 17 legislative acts, were signed by Alexander II. On the same day, the manifesto “On the most merciful granting to serfs of the rights of the state of free rural inhabitants” followed, which proclaimed the liberation of 22.6 million peasants from serfdom.

The “Provisions” applied to 45 provinces of European Russia, in which there were 112,000 landowner estates. First of all, it was declared obligatory for the landowner to provide his former peasants, in addition to the estate land, with arable and haymaking land in certain amounts. Secondly, it was declared obligatory for peasants to accept the allotment and keep in their use, for the duties established in favor of the landowner, the worldly land allocated to them for the first nine years (until February 19, 1870). After nine years, individual members of the community were given the right to both leave it and refuse to use field lands and lands if they bought out their estate; society itself also receives the right not to accept for its use such plots that individual peasants refuse. Thirdly, regarding the size of the peasant plot and the payments associated with it, according to general rules It is customary to be based on voluntary agreements between landowners and peasants, for which purpose a charter must be concluded through the mediation of peace mediators established by the state, their congresses and provincial presences on peasant affairs, and in the western provinces - and special verification commissions.

The “regulations,” however, were not limited to the rules for allocating land to peasants for permanent use, but made it easier for them to buy out the allocated plots of land using a government buyout operation, and the government lent the peasants a certain amount for the lands they purchased, with payment in installments for 49 years and, issuing this amount to the landowner in government interest-bearing securities, took upon herself all further settlements with the peasants. Upon approval by the government of the redemption transaction, all obligatory relations between the peasants and the landowner ceased and the latter entered the category of peasant owners.

The “provisions” were gradually extended to the palace, appanage, assigned and state peasants.

But as a result of this, the peasantry remained bound by the community, and the land allocated to them was clearly insufficient to meet the needs of the ever-growing population. The peasant remained completely dependent on the rural community (the former “world”), which, in turn, was completely controlled by the authorities; personal plots were transferred into the ownership of peasant societies, which periodically “equalized” them to redistribute them.

In the spring and summer of 1861, the peasants, who did not receive “full freedom” as they expected, organized many uprisings. Indignation was caused by such facts as, for example: for two years the peasants remained subordinate to the landowner, were obliged to pay quitrents and perform corvée, were deprived of a significant part of the land, and those plots that were given to them as property had to be bought back from the landowner. During 1861 1860 occurred peasant uprisings. One of the largest is considered to be the protests of peasants in the village of Bezdna, Kazan province. Subsequently, disappointment grew with the inconsistency of the reform not only of the former serfs: articles by A. Herzen and N. Ogarev in Kolokol, N. Chernyshevsky in Sovremennik.

B. Zemstvo reform.

P After the peasant “Regulations,” one of the most important places in the series of administrative reforms is occupied, without any doubt, by the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions,” which was published on January 1, 1864.

According to the regulations, classless elected bodies of local self-government - zemstvos - were introduced. They were elected by all classes for a three-year term and consisted of administrative bodies (district and provincial zemstvo assemblies) and executive bodies (district and provincial zemstvo councils). Elections to zemstvo administrative bodies - assemblies of councilors (deputies) - were held on the basis of property qualifications, according to curiae. The first curia (landowner) consisted of owners of land from 200 to 800 dessiatines or real estate worth from 15,000 rubles. The second curia (urban) united the owners of urban industrial and commercial establishments with an annual turnover of at least 6,000 rubles and owners of real estate of at least 2,000 rubles. Elections for the third curia (rural peasant societies) were multi-level. Zemstvo assemblies elected executive bodies - zemstvo councils - consisting of a chairman and several members.

Zemstvos were deprived of any political functions; their activities were limited mainly to resolving local issues. They were responsible for public education, for public health, for timely food supplies, for the quality of roads, for insurance, for veterinary care and much more.

All this required large funds, so zemstvos were allowed to introduce new taxes, impose duties on the population, and form zemstvo capital. With its full development, zemstvo activity was supposed to cover all aspects of local life. New forms of local self-government not only made it universal, but also expanded the range of its powers. Self-government became so widespread that it was understood by many as a transition to a representative form of government, so the government soon became noticeable in its desire to keep the activities of zemstvos at the local level, and not allow zemstvo corporations to communicate with each other.

At the end of the 70s, zemstvos were introduced in 35 of the 59 Russian provinces.

G. Urban reform (in continuation of the zemstvo reform).

1 On June 6, 1870, the “City Regulations” were published, according to which elective self-government was introduced in 509 out of 1130 cities - city councils elected for four years. The city duma (administrative body) elected its permanent executive body - the city council, which consisted of the city mayor (also elected for four years) and several members. The mayor was simultaneously the chairman of both the city duma and the city government. City councils were under the control of government officials.

Only residents with property qualifications (mainly owners of houses, commercial and industrial establishments, banks) had the right to vote and be elected to the city duma. The first electoral assembly included large taxpayers who contributed a third of city taxes, the second - smaller ones, paying another third of taxes, and the third - everyone else. In the largest cities, the number of vowels (elected) averaged 5.6% of the residents. Thus, the bulk of the urban population was excluded from participation in city government.

The competence of city self-government was limited to solving purely economic issues (urban improvement, setting up hospitals, schools, taking care of the development of trade, fire safety measures, city taxation).

D. Judicial reform.

IN Among the reforms, one of the leading places undoubtedly belongs to judicial reform. This deeply thought-out reform had a strong and direct impact on the entire structure of state and public life. She introduced into it completely new, long-awaited principles - the complete separation of the judicial power from the administrative and accusatory power, publicity and openness of the court, the independence of judges, the legal profession and the adversarial procedure of legal proceedings.

The country was divided into 108 judicial districts.

The essence of judicial reform boils down to the following:

The trial is oral and public;

Judicial power is separated from accusatory power and belongs to the courts without any participation of administrative power;

The main form of legal proceedings is the adversarial process;

The merits of a case can be dealt with in no more than two instances. Two types of courts were introduced: magistrates and general. Magistrates' courts, represented by the magistrate judge, heard criminal and civil cases, the damage for which did not exceed 500 rubles. Justices of the peace were elected by district zemstvo assemblies, confirmed by the Senate and could be dismissed only at their own request or by court. The general court consisted of three instances: the district court, the judicial chamber, and the Senate. District courts heard serious civil suits and criminal (jury) cases. The Trial Chambers heard appeals and served as the court of first instance for political and government cases. The Senate was the highest court and could overturn court decisions submitted for cassation.

In cases of crimes entailing penalties associated with the deprivation of all or some of the rights and benefits of the estate, the determination of guilt is left to jurors selected from local inhabitants of all classes;

Clerical secrecy is eliminated;

Both for the petition in cases and for the defense of defendants, there are sworn attorneys in the courts, who are under the supervision of special councils composed of the same corporation.

Judicial statutes extended to 44 provinces and were introduced into them over the course of more than thirty years.

In 1863, a law was passed that abolished corporal punishment with spitzrutens, whips, whips and brands by sentences of civil and military courts. Women were completely exempt from corporal punishment. But rods were preserved for peasants (according to verdicts of volost courts), for exiles, convicts and penal soldiers.

E. Military reform.

IN military administration also underwent changes.

Already at the beginning of the reign, military settlements were destroyed. Humiliating corporal punishment was abolished.

Particular attention was paid to raising the level of general education of army officers through reforms of military educational institutions. Military gymnasiums and cadet schools with a two-year training period were created. They accepted people of all classes.

In January 1874, all-class conscription was proclaimed. The Highest Manifesto on this occasion said: “Defense of the throne and the Fatherland is the sacred duty of every Russian subject...”. According to the new law, all young people who have reached the age of 21 are conscripted, but the government determines the required number of recruits every year, and by lot takes only this number from the conscripts (usually no more than 20-25% of conscripts were called up for service). The only son of his parents, the only breadwinner in the family, and also if the conscript's older brother is serving or has served in service were not subject to conscription. Those recruited for service are listed in it: in the ground forces for 15 years: 6 years in the ranks and 9 years in the reserve, in the navy - 7 years of active service and 3 years in the reserve. For those who received elementary education the period of active service is reduced to 4 years, for those who graduated from a city school - to 3 years, a gymnasium - to one and a half years, and for those who had a higher education - to six months.

Thus, the result of the reform was the creation of a small peacetime army with a significant trained reserve in case of war.

The military command and control system underwent radical changes in order to strengthen control over the locations of troops. The result of this revision was the “Regulations on Military District Directorates” approved on August 6, 1864. On the basis of this “Regulation”, initially nine military districts were organized, and then (August 6, 1865) four more. Each district has a chief commander, appointed at the highest discretion, bearing the title of commander of the troops of the military district. This position may also be assigned to the local governor-general. In some districts, an assistant commander of the troops is also appointed.

TO end of the 19th century century, the size of the Russian army was (per 130 million population): officers, doctors and officials - 47 thousand, lower ranks - 1 million 100 thousand. Then these numbers declined and reached 742,000 people, while the military potential was maintained.

In the 60s, at the insistence of the War Ministry, railways were built to the western and southern borders of Russia, and in 1870, railway troops appeared. During the 70s, the technical re-equipment of the army was largely completed.

Concern for the defenders of the Motherland was manifested in everything, even in small things. Let’s say that for more than a hundred years (until the 80s of the 19th century), boots were made without distinguishing between the right and left feet. It was believed that during a combat alert, a soldier had no time to think about which boot to put on which foot.

There was a special attitude towards prisoners. Military personnel who were captured and were not in the service of the enemy, upon returning home, received a salary from the state for the entire time they were in captivity. The prisoner was considered a victim. And those who distinguished themselves in battles received military awards. Orders of Russia were especially highly valued. They gave such privileges that they even changed a person’s position in society.

G. Financial reforms.

One of the main means of increasing the economic power of the country was considered to be the construction of a network of railways connecting the central regions of the European part of Russia. In connection with it, foreign holidays increased 10 times, and the import of goods almost also increased. The number of commercial and industrial enterprises has increased markedly, as well as the number of factories and factories. Credit institutions appeared - banks, headed by the State Bank (1860).

It was at this time that the first coal mining and metallurgical enterprises were created in Ukraine and oil producing enterprises in Baku.

H. Reforms in the field of education.

N Popular education also attracted the attention of the king. Of particular importance in this regard was the publication of a new and general charter of Russian universities on July 18, 1863, in the development of which, on the initiative of the Minister of Public Education A.V. Golovkin, a special commission under the main board of schools, composed mainly of professors from St. Petersburg University, participated. The charter provided universities with fairly broad autonomy: the election of the rector, deans, and professors was introduced, and the University Council received the right to independently resolve all scientific, educational, administrative and financial issues. And in connection with the development of universities, science began to develop at a correspondingly rapid pace.

According to the Regulations on Primary Public Schools approved on June 14, 1864, the state, church and society (zemstvos and cities) were to jointly educate the people.

On November 19, 1864, a new charter for gymnasiums appeared, which proclaimed equality in admission to all classes. But due to the high fees, this was only available to children of wealthy parents.

Attention was also paid to women's education. Already in the 60s, instead of the previous closed women's institutions, open ones began to be established, with the admission of girls of all classes, and these new institutions were under the department of the institutions of Empress Maria. The Ministry began to approve similar gymnasiums public education. In 1870, on May 24, a new Regulation on women's gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums of the Ministry of Public Education was approved. The need for higher education for women led to the establishment pedagogical courses and higher women's courses in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kyiv, Kazan and Odessa.

I. Reforms in the field of printing.

In 1857, the government put on the agenda the issue of revising the censorship statute. After permission in 1858 to discuss problems of public life and government activities in print, the number of periodicals (1860 – 230) and book titles (1860 – 2,058) increased sharply.

Already in 1862, the main censorship department was closed and part of its responsibilities were assigned to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and the other directly to the Minister of Public Education.

On April 6, 1865, the “Temporary Rules on the Press” were approved, which exempted from preliminary censorship original works of at least ten pages, and translated works of at least twenty pages, and some periodicals at the discretion of the Minister of the Interior. For periodicals, a large monetary deposit was additionally required. Official and scientific publications were exempt from censorship.

The “Temporary Rules on the Press” have been in effect virtually unchanged for 40 years.

III. III. Murder of the Emperor.

AND Emperor Alexander II, who caused delight and surprise among enlightened people of the whole world, also met ill-wishers. Pursuing goals that no one understood, the organizers created a whole series of attempts on the life of the sovereign, who was the pride and glory of Russia. On March 1, 1881, the sovereign, for whom a large population was ready to lay down their lives, died a martyr’s death from a villainous hand that threw an explosive shell.

On this fateful day, Emperor Alexander II decided to make a divorce (the procedure for sending out daily guards for shifts). The path lay along a narrow street formed by the Grand Duchess’s garden, enclosed by a man-sized stone fence and the grating of the Catherine Canal. The area is very impassable, and if it is true that the sovereign chose it in view of the anonymous threats he received, then it is difficult to imagine why an ambush awaited him on this road, unless it was because they noticed a large number of police on it, compared to the usual. Be that as it may, but when the sovereign's carriage reached Theater Bridge, there was an explosion that broke open the back of the carriage, which immediately stopped. The Emperor came out of it unharmed, but a thrown bomb mortally wounded one of the guards, who was galloping behind, and a sapper officer walking along the sidewalk along the stone wall of the Mikhailovsky Garden. The sovereign’s coachman, sensing trouble, turned to him from the box: “Let’s go, sovereign!” The police chief, who was galloping behind, jumped out of the sleigh with the same request to go faster. But the emperor did not listen and took a few steps back: “I want to see my wounded.” At this time, the crowd managed to stop the healthy fellow who threw the bomb. The Emperor turned to him: “So it was you who wanted to kill me?” But he was unable to finish his sentence when the second bomb exploded in front of him, and he fell down with the words: “Help.” They rushed to him, lifted him up, put him in the sleigh of the police chief (who himself received 45 wounds from small bomb fragments, but not a single fatal one) and drove away. A little over an hour later, at 3:35 pm, Tsar Alexander II died in the Winter Palace.

The outstanding Russian philosopher V.V. Rozanov called the assassination of the emperor “a cross between Madness and Meanness.”

The political testament of Alexander II was destroyed. Alexander III, in the consciousness of his past errors and in an effort to return to the ideal of the kings of Moscow, addressed the people with a manifesto in which the inviolability of autocratic power and the exclusive responsibility of the autocrat before God.

The Russian Empire thus returned to the old traditional paths on which it had once found glory and prosperity.

IV. The significance of the period of the reign of Alexander II in the history of Russia.

A Alexander II left a deep mark on history; he managed to do what other autocrats were afraid to undertake - the liberation of the peasants from serfdom. We still enjoy the fruits of his reforms to this day.

The internal reforms of Alexander II are comparable in scale only to the reforms of Peter I. The Tsar-Reformer carried out truly grandiose transformations without social cataclysms and fratricidal war.

With the abolition of serfdom, commercial and industrial activity “resurrected”, a flow of workers poured into the cities, and new areas for entrepreneurship opened up. Former connections between cities and counties were restored and new ones were created.

The fall of serfdom, the equalization of everyone before the court, the creation of new liberal forms of social life led to personal freedom. And the feeling of this freedom aroused the desire to develop it. Dreams were created of establishing new forms of family and social life.

During his reign, Russia firmly strengthened its relations with European powers and resolved numerous conflicts with neighboring countries.

The tragic death of the emperor greatly changed the further course of history, and it was this event that, 35 years later, led Russia to death, and Nicholas II to a martyr's wreath.

LIST OF REFERENCES USED.

1. 1. S.F. Platonov “Lectures on Russian history”, Moscow, publishing house “ graduate School", 1993.

2. 2. V.V. Kargalov, Yu.S. Savelyev, V.A. Fedorov “History of Russia from ancient times to 1917”, Moscow, publishing house “ Russian word", 1998.

3. 3. “History of Russia from antiquity to the present day”, edited by M.N. Zuev, Moscow, “Higher School”, 1998.

4. 4. “A manual on the history of the Fatherland for those entering universities,” edited by A.S. Orlov, A.Yu. Polunov and Yu.A. Shchetinova, Moscow, Prostor publishing house, 1994.

The abolition of serfdom posed new serious problems for the authorities. For centuries, the serf system in Russia determined the organization of the management and judicial system, the principles of recruiting the army, etc. The collapse of this system dictated the need for further reforms.

Zemstvo and city reforms

The abolition of serfdom created many empty spaces in the previously existing system of local government, because this latter was closely connected with serfdom. Thus, before, each landowner on his estate was the personification of power for his peasants. And in the district and provincial administration, most of the positions since the time of Catherine II were filled by the choice of the nobility and from among its representatives. After the abolition of serfdom, this entire system collapsed. The local economy was already extremely neglected. There was practically no medical care in the village. Epidemics claimed thousands of lives. The peasants did not know basic hygiene rules. Public education could not get out of its infancy. Some landowners who maintained schools for their peasants closed them immediately after the abolition of serfdom. No one cared about the country roads. Thus, it was urgent to find a way out of this intolerable situation, given that the state treasury was depleted and the government could not improve the local economy on its own. Therefore, it was decided to meet the liberal public halfway (especially from non-black earth provinces), which petitioned for the introduction of local all-class self-government.

These ideas were expressed by N.A. Milyutin in a note addressed to the emperor. Once approved by the latter, they became the guiding principles of the reform. These principles were expressed in the formula: give local government as much confidence as possible, as much independence as possible and as much unity as possible.

On January 1, 1864, the law on zemstvo self-government was approved. The zemstvo reform began, during which a system of local self-government bodies was created in Russia at two territorial levels - in the district and the province. The administrative bodies of the zemstvo were the district and provincial zemstvo assemblies, and the executive bodies were the district and provincial zemstvo councils. Elections of zemstvo bodies were held every three years. In each district, three electoral congresses (curia) were created for the election of members of the district zemstvo assembly. The first curia (private landowners) included persons, regardless of class, who had at least 200-800 dessiatines. land (land qualifications were different in different counties). The second (rural societies) - elected from volost assemblies. The third curia (city voters) included city property owners with a certain property qualification. Each of the congresses elected a certain equal number vowels (for a period of three years). District zemstvo assemblies elected members of the provincial zemstvo. To carry out their tasks, zemstvos received the right to impose a special tax on the population.

As a rule, nobles predominated in zemstvo assemblies. Despite conflicts with liberal landowners, the autocracy considered the landed nobility its main support. Therefore, the chairmen of district assemblies automatically (ex officio) became the district leaders of the nobility, and the chairmen of provincial assemblies - the provincial leaders. Zemstvos were introduced only in 34 provinces of European Russia. He was not in Siberia and the Arkhangelsk province, because... there were no landowners there. Zemstvos were not introduced in the Don Army Region, in the Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, where Cossack self-government existed.

The functions of zemstvos were quite diverse. They were in charge of the local economy (construction and maintenance of local roads, etc.), public education, medicine, and statistics. However, they could engage in all these matters only within the boundaries of their district or province. Zemstvo members had no right not only to solve any problems of a national nature, but even to raise them for discussion. Moreover, provincial zemstvos were forbidden to communicate with each other and coordinate their activities even on such issues as the fight against hunger, epidemics, and livestock deaths.

Milyutin did not insist on expanding the competence of zemstvos, but believed that in their field of activity they should enjoy complete autonomy and independence from local administrative authorities, subordinate only to the Senate, and that governors should only be given the right to oversee the legality of their actions.

The shortcomings of the zemstvo reform were obvious: the incompleteness of the structure of zemstvo bodies (the absence of a higher central body), the artificial creation of a numerical advantage for the landed nobility, and limited scope of activity. At the same time, this reform was of serious importance. The very fact of the emergence in Russia of a system of self-government, fundamentally different from the dominant bureaucratic system, was important. The election of zemstvo bodies and their relative independence from bureaucratic structures made it possible to count on the fact that these bodies, with all their shortcomings, would proceed from the interests of the local population and bring them real benefits. These hopes were generally justified. Soon after the creation of zemstvos, Russia was covered with a network of zemstvo schools and hospitals.

With the advent of the zemstvo, the balance of power in the province began to change. Previously, all affairs in the districts were carried out by government officials together with the landowners. Now that a network of schools has expanded. hospitals and statistical bureaus, the “third element” appeared, as zemstvo doctors, teachers, agronomists, and statisticians began to be called. Many representatives of the rural intelligentsia showed high examples of serving the people. The peasants trusted them, and the government listened to their advice. Government officials watched with alarm the growing influence of the “third element.”

As soon as they were born, zemstvos met with an extremely hostile attitude towards themselves from all government bodies - central and local, and soon lost a significant part of their already small powers, which led to the fact that many worthy figures of the zemstvo movement cooled towards it and left the zemstvo councils and meetings.

According to the law, zemstvos were purely economic organizations. But they soon began to play an important political role. In those years, the most enlightened and humane landowners usually entered the zemstvo service. They became members of zemstvo assemblies, members and chairmen of councils. They stood at the origins of the zemstvo liberal movement. And representatives of the “third element” gravitated towards left-wing, democratic, currents of social thought. There was hope in society for further steps in a radical restructuring of the Russian state system. Liberal leaders, who wholeheartedly welcomed the reform, consoled themselves with the dream of “crowning the building” - the creation of an all-Russian representative body on a zemstvo basis, which would be progress towards a constitutional monarchy. But the government took a completely different path. As it turned out later, in 1864 she gave the maximum self-government that she considered possible. Government policy towards zemstvos in the second half of the 1860s - 1870s. was aimed at depriving him of all independence. Governors received the right to refuse confirmation to office of any person elected by the zemstvo; even greater rights were given to them in relation to “employees” - zemstvo doctors, teachers, statisticians: at the slightest provocation they were not only expelled from the zemstvo, but also expelled outside the province. In addition, the governor became the censor of all printed publications zemstvo - reports, meeting journals, statistical research. The central and local authorities purposefully stifled any initiative of the zemstvos and radically stopped any attempt by them towards independent activity. Whenever conflict situations the government did not hesitate to dissolve zemstvo assemblies, exile their members and take other punitive measures.

As a result, instead of moving forward towards representative government, the authorities stubbornly moved backward, trying to include zemstvo bodies into the bureaucratic system. This constrained the activities of the zemstvos and undermined their authority. Nevertheless, the zemstvos managed to achieve serious success in their specific work, especially in the field of public education and medicine. But they were never destined to become full-fledged bodies of self-government and serve as the basis for the construction of a constitutional system.

On similar grounds, the City Regulations (a law on the reform of city government) were published in 1870. Issues of improvement (lighting, heating, water supply, cleaning, transport, construction of city passages, embankments, bridges, etc.), as well as the management of school, medical and charitable affairs, and care for the development of trade and industry were subject to the trusteeship of city councils and councils. The City Duma was charged with mandatory expenses for maintaining the fire department, police, prisons, and barracks (these expenses absorbed from 20 to 60% of the city budget). The city regulations eliminated the class principle in the formation of city self-government bodies, replacing it with a property qualification. Males who have reached 25 years of age participated in the elections to the city duma in three electoral congresses (curias) (small, medium and large taxpayers) with equal total amounts of payments of city taxes. Each curia elected 1/3 of the City Duma. Along with private individuals, departments, companies, monasteries, etc., who paid fees to the city budget, received the right to vote. Workers who did not pay taxes to the city did not participate in the elections. The number of dumas was established taking into account the population from 30 to 72 vowels, in Moscow - 180, in St. Petersburg - 250. The mayor, his comrade (deputy) and the council were elected by the duma. The mayor headed both the Duma and the Council, coordinating their activities. The body supervising compliance with the law in the activities of city government was the Provincial Presence for City Affairs (chaired by the governor).

Within their competence, City Dumas had relative independence and autonomy. They carried out a lot of work on the improvement and development of cities, but in the social movement they were not as noticeable as the zemstvos. This was explained by the long-standing political inertia of the merchant and business class.

Judicial reform

In 1864, a judicial reform was carried out, radically transforming the structure of the Russian court and the entire legal process. The old courts existed without any significant changes since the time of Catherine II, although the need for judicial reform was recognized even by Alexander I. The main defects of the old judicial system were estate (each estate had its own court and its own laws), complete subordination to the administration and closedness trial(which opened up unprecedented opportunities for abuse and lawlessness). The defendant was not always informed of all the grounds on which the charges brought against him were based. The verdict was made based on the totality of the system of formal evidence, and not on the internal conviction of the judge. The judges themselves often had not only no legal education, but none at all.

It was possible to take up the reform only after the abolition of serfdom, which forced the abandonment of the principle of class and the change of the conservative Minister of Justice, Count. V.N. Panina. The author of the judicial reform was a long-time supporter of changes in this area, the State Secretary of the State Council (one of the few who spoke in the State Council in 1861 for the approval of the peasant reform) Sergei Ivanovich Zarudny. In 1862, the emperor approved the main provisions of the judicial reform developed by him: 1) the absence of class of the court, 2) equality of all citizens before the law, 3) complete independence of the court from the administration (which was guaranteed by the irremovability of judges), 4) careful selection of judicial personnel and their sufficient number material support.

The old class courts were abolished. Instead, a world court and a crown court were created - two systems independent from each other, which were united only by subordination to one supreme judicial body - the Senate. A magistrate's court with a simplified procedure was introduced in counties to deal with cases of minor offenses and civil cases with a minor claim (for the first time this category of cases was separated from the general mass). More serious cases were dealt with in the crown court, which had two instances: the district court and the trial chamber. In case of violation of the legal order of judicial proceedings, the decisions of these bodies could be appealed to the Senate.

From the old courts, which conducted business in a purely bureaucratic manner, the new ones differed primarily in that they were public, i.e. open to the public and press. In addition, the judicial procedure was based on an adversarial process, during which the charge was formulated, substantiated and supported by the prosecutor, and the interests of the defendant were defended by a lawyer from among the sworn lawyers. The prosecutor and lawyer had to find out all the circumstances of the case, questioning witnesses, analyzing physical evidence, etc. After hearing the judicial debate, the jury (12 people), chosen by lot from representatives of all classes, made their verdict on the case (“guilty”, “innocent”, “guilty, but deserves leniency”). Based on the verdict, the crown court (represented by the chairman and two members of the court) passed a sentence. Only in case of an obvious violation of procedural norms (failure to hear one of the parties by the court, failure to call witnesses, etc.) could the parties, by filing a cassation appeal, transfer the case (civil - from the judicial chamber, criminal - from the district court) to the Senate, which, in the event confirmation of violations, transferred the case without consideration to another court, or to the same court, but with a different composition. A feature of the reform was that both the investigators who prepared the case for trial and the judges who led the entire judicial procedure, although appointed by the government, were irremovable for the entire term of their powers. In other words, as a result of the reform it was supposed to create a court that was as independent as possible and protect it from outside influences, primarily from pressure from the administration. At the same time, cases of state and some judicial crimes, as well as cases of the press, were removed from the jurisdiction of the jury.

The World Court, whose task was to provide the Russian people with a “quick, just and merciful” court, consisted of one person. The justice of the peace was elected by zemstvo assemblies or city dumas for three years. The government could not by its own power remove him from office (as well as the judges of the district crown court). The task of the magistrate's court was to reconcile the guilty, and if the parties were unwilling, the judge was given considerable scope in imposing punishment - depending not on any external formal data, but on his inner conviction. The introduction of magistrates' courts significantly relieved the crown courts of the mass of small cases.

Yet the judicial reform of 1864 remained unfinished. To resolve conflicts among the peasantry, the estate volost court was retained. This was partly explained by the fact that peasant legal concepts were very different from general civil ones. A magistrate with a “Code of Laws” would often be powerless to judge the peasants. The volost court, consisting of peasants, judged on the basis of the customs existing in the area. But he was too exposed to influence from the wealthy upper classes of the village and all kinds of authorities. The volost court and the magistrate had the right to impose corporal punishment. This shameful phenomenon existed in Russia until 1904. There was a separate church court for the clergy (for specifically church matters).

In addition, soon after the start of the implementation of judicial reform, largely under the influence of the unprecedented scale of terrorism, the government began to subordinate the courts to the dominant bureaucratic system. In the second half of the 1860s - 1870s, the publicity of court hearings and their coverage in the press was significantly limited; The dependence of judicial officials on the local administration increased: they were ordered to unquestioningly “obey the legal requirements” of the provincial authorities. The principle of irremovability was also undermined: instead of investigators, “acting” investigators were increasingly appointed, to whom the principle of irremovability did not apply. Innovations relating to political cases were especially characteristic : the investigation in these cases began to be conducted not by investigators, but by gendarmes; legal proceedings were carried out not by jury trials, but by the Special Presence of the Governing Senate created specifically for this purpose. Since the late 1870s, a significant part of political cases began to be tried by military courts.

And yet, one can without hesitation admit that judicial reform was the most radical and consistent of all the Great Reforms of the 1860s.

Military reforms

In 1861, General Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin was appointed Minister of War. Taking into account the lessons of the Crimean War, he spent the 1860s - I half. 1870s a number of military reforms. One of the main objectives of military reforms was to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and create the opportunity for a significant increase in it in wartime. This was achieved by reducing the non-combatant element (non-combatant, local and auxiliary troops) and introducing in 1874 (under the influence of the successful actions of the Prussian army in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 - 1871) universal conscription, replacing the pre-reform conscription. Military service extended to the entire male population, aged 21-40, without distinction of class. For ground forces, a 6-year period of active service and 9 years in reserve was established; for the navy - 7 years of active service and 3 years in reserve. Then those liable for military service were transferred as warriors to the State Militia, where those exempt from conscription were also enrolled. In peacetime, no more than 25 - 30% of the total was taken into active service. total number conscripts. A significant part of conscripts were exempted from service due to family benefits (the only son of their parents, the only breadwinner in the family, etc.), due to physical unfitness, or due to their occupation (doctors, veterinarians, pharmacists, educators and teachers); the rest drew lots. Representatives of the peoples of the North and Central Asia, some peoples of the Caucasus, the Urals and Siberia (Muslims) were not subject to conscription. Cossacks underwent military service under special conditions. Service life was shortened depending on education. If the person who received the education entered active service voluntarily (as a volunteer), then the service life was further shortened by another half. Under this condition, conscripts who had a secondary education served only seven months, and higher education - three. These benefits became an additional incentive for the spread of education. During the Milyutin reforms, the conditions of service for the lower ranks (soldiers) were significantly changed: corporal punishment was abolished (punishment with rods was reserved only for the category of “fine”); improved food, uniforms and barracks; Strict measures have been taken to stop beatings of soldiers; Systematic literacy training for soldiers was introduced (in company schools). The abolition of conscription, along with the abolition of serfdom, significantly increased the popularity of Alexander II among the peasantry.

At the same time, a harmonious, strictly centralized structure was created to streamline the military command system. In 1862 - 1864 Russia was divided into 15 military districts, directly subordinate to the War Ministry. In 1865, the General Staff was established - the central authority for command and control of troops. Transformations in the sphere of military education were also of serious importance: instead of closed cadet corps military gymnasiums were established, similar in curriculum to secondary schools (gymnasiums) and opening the way to any higher education educational institution. Those who wished to continue their military education entered the institutions established in the 1860s. specialized cadet schools - artillery, cavalry, military engineering. An important feature of these schools was their all-class status, which opened access to the officer corps to persons of non-noble origin. Higher military education was provided by the academy - General Staff. artillery, military medical, naval, etc. The army was rearmed (the first rifled breech-loading guns, Berdan rifles, etc.).

Military reforms met with strong opposition from conservative circles of the generals and society; The main opponent of the reforms was Field Marshal Prince. A.I. Baryatinsky. Military “authorities” criticized the reforms for their bureaucratic nature and diminishing the role of command staff, the overthrow of the centuries-old foundations of the Russian army.

Results and significance of the reforms of the 1860s - 1870s.

The reforms of the 60-70s are a major phenomenon in the history of Russia. New, modern bodies of self-government and courts contributed to the growth of the country's productive forces, the development of civic consciousness of the population, the spread of education, and the improvement of the quality of life. Russia joined the pan-European process of creating advanced, civilized forms of statehood based on the initiative of the population and its expression of will. But these were only the first steps. Remnants of serfdom were strong in local government, and many noble privileges remained intact. The reforms of the 60-70s did not affect the upper levels of power. The autocracy and police system inherited from past eras were preserved.

wiki.304.ru / History of Russia. Dmitry Alkhazashvili.