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Presentation on the topic: Austria-Hungary in the 19th - early 20th century
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By the 30s - 40s. 19th century The Austrian Empire was a multinational state. It included the territories of Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, as well as part of the territory of modern Romania, Poland, Italy and Ukraine. In these lands, the desire for state independence and national independence was strengthened. The Habsburgs tried to maintain the empire at the cost of minor concessions to the peoples who inhabited it.
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The Austrian Empire in the first half of the 19th century The peasantry remained disenfranchised, corvée reached 104 days a year, and dues were collected. Guild restrictions dominated the country. There were internal customs duties. The construction of new manufactories and factories was forbidden. Severe censorship. The school was under the control of the clergy. Political and spiritual oppression of the peoples of the empire (the principle of "divide and conquer" was applied to the oppressed peoples). Emperor of the Austrian Empire Franz IAustrian Chancellor Clement Wenzel Metternich
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1848 - Revolution in the Austrian Empire (Austria, Hungary, Czech Republic) Causes The development of the industrial revolution was hampered by the old feudal order. The prohibitive policy of the Habsburgs in the field of economicsPolitical repressions. 1847 - the world economic crisis ("hungry forties") The desire of the peoples of the empire for national independence. Emperor of the Austrian Empire Ferdinand I (1835 - 1848)
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The results of the revolutions in the Austrian Empire Emperor Ferdinand abdicated in favor of his eighteen-year-old nephew Franz Joseph (1830-1916). The introduction of a constitution that consolidated the integrity of the empire. The establishment of a high property qualification for voters. Holding peasant reform in Hungary: the abolition of corvee and church tithes, one third of the cultivated land passed into the hands of the peasants. All peoples of the Kingdom of Hungary received political freedoms and land. However, the peoples of the Austrian Empire did not receive national independence. Emperor of the Austrian Empire Franz Joseph
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Defeats in the wars with France, Piedmont and Prussia Unrest in Hungary The need to strengthen the integrity of the state increased. 1867 - the Austro-Hungarian agreement to transform the Habsburg empire into a dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, which consisted of two independent states in internal affairs - Austria and Hungary. Emperor of Austria-Hungary Franz Joseph
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1868 - The Czech state (Czech Republic, Moravia and Silesia) raised the issue of secession from Austria. Austria agreed to democratic reforms: They lowered the property qualification, which gave the right to participate in elections, as a result, wide sections of small owners of the city and village, part of the workers received the right to vote. The Czechs led their representatives to the Austrian Parliament. In areas where there was a mixed population, two languages were introduced, and the officials of the Czech Republic and Moravia were obliged to know them. On the whole, the position of the Czechs, who raised the question of complete separation from Austria, remained the same. Hungary also opposed their claims to independence, fearing similar demands from "their own" Slavs.
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All Austrian governments pursued a policy of small concessions in order to keep the population of the empire in a "state of moderate discontent" and not lead them to dangerous explosions. Austria-Hungary became a federation, but the borders of Austria and Hungary did not coincide with national borders.
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Austria-Hungary in the late 19th - early 20th century From the late 1880s. accelerated the pace economic development. Large centers of transport engineering and weapons production have grown. In connection with the rapid development of railway construction, metal processing and mechanical engineering began to develop actively. In Hungary, the leading industry was the processing of agricultural products. In 1873, three cities - Buda, Pest and Obuda - merged into one city of Budapest. In 1887, the first tram passed through the city, and in 1895 the metro opened. By the beginning of the 20th century. monopoly capitalism is rapidly developing in the empire (cartels were the main form of association of enterprises). England, France and Germany actively invested in the industry of the empire. The old nobility, in alliance with the new bourgeoisie, became the dominant force of the empire. In the countryside, the process of stratification of the peasantry was going on.
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Problems of Austria-Hungary at the beginning of the 20th century Government crises (from 1897 to 1914 governments changed 15 times in Austria). Social legislation in the country practically did not exist. It was not until 1907 that the Austrian parliament adopted a new electoral law that gave the right to vote to all men over the age of 24. In Hungary in 1908, only literate men were granted the right to vote, and the owners of any property received two votes each. Land-poor and landless peasants went to the cities or emigrated. The bulk of the peasants lived in terrible poverty. In many areas, landowners and peasants belonged to different nationalities, and this increased national hostility. The desire for national independence and state independence of the peoples that were part of the empire At the beginning of the 20th century. the empire was largely based on the authority of the old emperor and on the bayonets of the Habsburg army. Emperor of Austria-Hungary Franz Joseph I
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Foreign policy of Austria-Hungary and At the beginning of the XX century. Austria-Hungary began to intensify its penetration into the Balkans. In 1878, the empire received the right to govern Bosnia and Herzegovina, which formally remained part of Ottoman Empire. 1882 Austria-Hungary joined the Triple Alliance. In 1908, a revolution took place in Turkey, the emperor brought troops into Bosnia and Herzegovina and declared them part of Austria-Hungary. Tension in the Balkans was growing, the interests of the leading European powers were clashing there. On June 28, 1914, a member of the secret nationalist organization "Mlada Bosna" Gavrila Princip killed in Sarajevo the nephew of Franz Joseph, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian thrones, Franz Ferdinand and his wife, who was there on military maneuvers. This was the reason for the start of the First World War.
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"Patchwork Empire". Having lost the position of a great power after the defeat in the Austro-Prussian war of 1866, Austria in 1867 concluded an agreement on unification with Hungary.
The united Austria-Hungary became one of the largest states in Europe. In terms of territory and population, it surpassed Great Britain, Italy and France. At the beginning of the XX century. Austria-Hungary included the territories of Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia and Croatia, as well as part of the territories of modern Romania, Poland, Italy and Ukraine. Vienna, the capital of Austria, was one of the most ancient, populous and wealthy cities in Europe. Industrial, commercial and cultural centers were also the capital of Hungary, Budapest and main city Czech lands Prague.
Unlike most states of Western Europe, Austria-Hungary was a multinational state, and it was often called a "patchwork empire." More than a dozen different nationalities lived on the territory of Austria-Hungary, and none of them made up even a quarter of the total population. The most numerous were Austrians (23.5% of the population) and Hungarians (19.1%). This was followed by Czechs and Slovaks (16.5%), Serbs and Croats (16.5%), Poles (10%), Ukrainians (8%), Romanians (6.5%), Slovenes, Italians, Germans and many others.
Some nationalities lived more or less compactly: for example, Austrians in Austria, Hungarians in Hungary, Croats in Croatia, Czechs in the Czech lands, Poles and Ukrainians in Galicia, Romanians and Hungarians in Transylvania. Many areas had a mixed population.
Religious differences were added to national differences: Austrians, Italians and Poles professed Catholicism, Czechs and Germans - Protestants, Croats - Muslims, Ukrainians - Orthodoxy or Uniatism.
According to the terms of the agreement of 1867 between Austria and Hungary, Austria-Hungary was considered "dual royal" Hungarians and Austrians. The Austrian emperor Franz Joseph was also the Hungarian king. He had the right to issue legislative acts, approved the composition of the government and was the commander-in-chief of the united Austro-Hungarian army. Austria and Hungary had three common ministries - military, foreign affairs and finance. Austria and Hungary had their own parliaments and governments, the composition of which was approved by the emperor.
There was no universal suffrage. Only the owners of any property enjoyed the right to vote; the vote was open. In areas densely populated by some nationalities (in Croatia, the Czech lands, Galicia), their own constitutions were in force, there were local parliaments and self-government bodies. In such areas, by law, teaching in primary schools and office work in local authorities was to be conducted on national languages, but this law was often violated.
The great complexity of the national and religious composition, the unequal position of all nationalities, except for the Austrians and Hungarians, gave rise to various national movements whose interests did not coincide. Serious contradictions existed even between the two dominant nations - the Austrians and the Hungarians. Part of the ruling circles of Hungary advocated the liquidation of the agreement of 1867, the separation of Hungary from Austria and the proclamation of Hungary's independence. Relations between other nationalities were even more complicated. The peoples who did not have their own statehood were at enmity with the Austrians and Hungarians, and at the same time were often in hostile relations with each other.
The government of Austria-Hungary sought to suppress the desire of the oppressed nationalities for independence. Several times it dissolved the local parliaments and governments, but could not put an end to the national movements. Numerous legal and illegal nationalist organizations continued to operate in the empire.
Socio-economic development. In the field of economy, Austria-Hungary lagged behind the great powers. The most industrially developed were Austria and the Czech lands located in the western part of Austria-Hungary. There was a large industry and banks. The six largest monopolies controlled the extraction of almost all iron ore and 92% of steel production. Metallurgical concern "Skoda" in the Czech Republic was one of the most significant enterprises in the European military industry. In other parts of Austria-Hungary, small and medium industry predominated. Hungary, Croatia, Galicia, Transylvania were agrarian regions with large landed estates. About a third of all cultivated land there belonged to the largest owners, who each had more than 1,000 hectares. The peasants were dependent on the landlords, often ran their households in outdated traditional ways.
A feature of the economy of Austria-Hungary was the important role of foreign capital in it. The leading branches of the Austro-Hungarian industry: metallurgical, machine-building, oil, electrical engineering - were financed by German firms or were their property. In second place was French capital. He owned the Skoda factories, part railways, mines and enterprises of the iron foundry industry.
The working class of Austria-Hungary was small. He concentrated mainly on major cities Austria and the Czech Republic, as well as in the capital of Hungary - Budapest. Two-thirds of the population of Austria-Hungary lived in the countryside, engaged in agriculture, crafts and trade. In many areas the ruling and exploited classes belonged to different nationalities. Croatian, Serbian, Romanian peasants often worked for the Hungarian magnates, Ukrainian peasants - for the Polish landowners. This circumstance further complicated national relations and increased national hostility.
Crisis of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. At the beginning of the XX century. The Austro-Hungarian Empire was going through a deep political crisis caused by the rise of the labor and national liberation movement. After the publication in Russia of the tsarist manifesto on October 17 (30), 1905, which promised democratic freedoms and the convocation of the State Duma, the leadership of the Austrian Social Democratic Party called on the working people to mass actions in support of universal suffrage. In early November 1905, in Vienna and Prague, workers took to the streets, staged demonstrations, organized strikes, built barricades, clashed with the police. The Austrian government made concessions and on November 4, 1905 announced its consent to the introduction of universal suffrage. In February 1907, a new electoral law was adopted, which, for the first time in the history of Austria, gave the right to vote to all men over the age of 24.
Events in Hungary developed differently. The Suffrage Reform Act was introduced in the Hungarian Parliament in 1908, but it granted the right to vote only to literate men, with owners of any property receiving two votes each. It was only in 1910 that the Hungarian government promised to introduce universal suffrage, but did not fulfill its promise.
The main place in the political life of Austria-Hungary at that time was occupied by questions of foreign policy. The ruling circles, especially the so-called "military party", headed by the ardent militarist deputy commander-in-chief, heir to the throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, sought to expand in the Balkans. In October 1908, the government announced the accession to Austria-Hungary of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the former Turkish provinces populated mainly by Serbs and Croats.
The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina provoked a protest from the population of these provinces and led to a sharp aggravation of the contradictions between Austria-Hungary and Serbia. The "Military Party" launched a propaganda campaign against Serbia and began to prepare for a "preventive" (precautionary) war with it.
For their part, Serbian and Croatian nationalist organizations operating in Austria-Hungary launched a struggle for the liberation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the creation of a unified Yugoslav state led by Serbia. In an effort to suppress the national movements of the peoples inhabiting Austria-Hungary, the government decided to dissolve part of the local self-government bodies. In 1912, the Croatian parliament was dissolved and the constitution suspended. In 1913 the same fate befell the Czech Parliament. In 1914 the government dissolved the Austrian Parliament. As a result, national and class contradictions became even more aggravated.
At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, the Austro-Hungarian Empire had significant economic, political and military potential. As you know, the beginning of the century is characterized by a tense international situation, the central place in which belonged to Austria-Hungary, insofar as it included the territories of the Balkan Peninsula. And as you know, the Balkans are the "powder keg" of Europe. First World War will start right here. Its prerequisites and contradictions originated not only in Germany, Britain, but by and large in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which was destined not only to become an ally of the Triple Alliance, but also to fight against the Russian Empire.
Domestic political situation in the empire
For a better understanding of the state of affairs in Austria-Hungary at the beginning of the 20th century, let's try to compare the countries that fought in World War I from different military-political blocs. Perhaps the most appropriate would be a comparison of the Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires.
The similarity is amazing. Like Russian empire, Austria-Hungary was a large continental state, which in terms of its level of development was in no way inferior (and in some aspects even superior) to the advanced countries of Europe. Austria-Hungary, like Russia, was literally torn apart by internal contradictions, primarily national ones.
national wrestling
The Austro-Hungarian monarchy included many nationalities and peoples. The struggle of these small nations (Poles, Croats, Romanians, Serbs, Slovenes, Ukrainians, Czechs, Slovaks) for self-determination, expansion of administrative and cultural rights very powerfully rocked the stability of the empire from within. It should also be taken into account that Austria-Hungary claimed a unique structure government controlled, which was built on the power of two monarchs. And this greatly aggravated the internal political situation.
Foreign policy of the state
The geopolitical interest of the empire was focused on the Balkan Peninsula, and Russia also claimed these territories. They were inhabited Slavic peoples, which at the beginning of the century were under the yoke of the Ottoman Empire, the eternal enemy of both Austria-Hungary and Russia. But both empires did not agree with the fair division of the Balkans, so the conflict of huge powers deepened every year, and it was not only Austria-Hungary that aggravated it. The Empire and Russia fanned this conflict in equal measure.
Serbia became the bone of inevitable contention between the states. Strengthened in the two Balkan wars of 1912-1913. the Slavic kingdom created serious problems for Austria-Hungary by expressing ideas of independence. Such a policy of the King of Serbia, Peter Karageorgievich, was promoted by Russia, an old brother of the Serbian people. Given this state of affairs, the Austro-Hungarian government could only count on a forceful solution to the problem.
Army and its structure
The foreign policy task of this level of complexity was entrusted to the imperial and royal armies of Austria-Hungary. That was the name of the armed forces of the empire. The army, like the rest of the state, was heterogeneous. It consisted of Austrians, Hungarians, Croats, Bosnians and representatives of other peoples that are part of the country. The Austro-Hungarian troops were divided into four components: the imperial and royal army of the Landwehr, the Bosnian-Herzegovina troops, the royal Hungarian Honved and the imperial royal troops. All of them, respectively, had bodies of military and territorial administration. The territorial aspect in the army gave rise to a lot of contradictions, since the governments of Austria and Hungary contributed to the development of the Honved and Landwehr and, on the contrary, tried to deprive the rest of the army.
There were many shortcomings and contradictions in the officer corps. Military academies educated officers in the spirit of old, outdated traditions. The military became bureaucratized and were only able to carry out maneuvers, and not at all. fighting. There was no theoretical, living military thought in the army. And in general, many officers were nationalistic and were ardent anti-monarchists.
But it is not necessary to talk only about the negative state of the Austro-Hungarian army, of course, there were strengths. The imperial and royal armies were particularly mobile. The small territory of the empire and the developed network of railways allowed the troops to move faster than all the armies of the continent. Austria-Hungary was second only to Germany in terms of technological equipment for the army. The industry of the state, due to its development, could allow a very good supply of the army, even in military conditions. But if the war had been protracted, all the advantages would have been lost. There were many in this position. European states Austria-Hungary is no exception. The First World War, which is about to begin, will put everything in its place.
Empire at the beginning of the 20th century
Thus, we can state the fact that the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century was in a crisis, both external and internal. Austria-Hungary in the 19th century strengthened itself on the map of Europe, but it failed to maintain its leading position, which led to the growth of contradictions in the national question, in the armed forces and geopolitical strategies.
Austria in XX century
World War I.
The news of the beginning of the war was greeted with enthusiasm. The danger of the offensive of the Russian army rallied the Austrians, even the Social Democrats supported the war. Official and unofficial propaganda inspired the will to win and to a large extent quenched inter-ethnic conflicts. The unity of the state was ensured by a tough military dictatorship, the dissatisfied were forced to submit. Only in the Czech Republic the war did not cause much enthusiasm. All the resources of the monarchy were mobilized to achieve victory, but the leadership acted extremely inefficiently.
Military failures at the beginning of the war undermined the spirit of the army and the population. Streams of refugees rushed from the war zones to Vienna and other cities. Many public buildings were converted into hospitals. Italy's entry into the war against the monarchy in May 1915 increased the fervor of war, especially among the Slovenes. When the territorial claims of Romania to Austria-Hungary were rejected, Bucharest went over to the side of the Entente.
It was at the very moment when the Romanian armies were retreating that the eighty-year-old Emperor Franz Joseph died. The new ruler, young Charles I, a man with limited abilities, removed the people on whom his predecessor relied. In 1917 Karl convened the Reichsrat. Representatives of national minorities demanded the reformation of the empire. Some sought autonomy for their peoples, others insisted on complete secession. Patriotic sentiments forced the Czechs to desert the army, and the Czech rebel Karel Kramař was sentenced to death on charges of high treason, but then pardoned. In July 1917 the emperor declared an amnesty for political prisoners. This gesture of reconciliation reduced his authority among the militant Austro-Germans: the monarch was reproached for being too soft.
Even before the accession of Charles to the throne, the Austrian Social Democrats were divided into supporters and opponents of the war. Pacifist leader Friedrich Adler, son of Viktor Adler, assassinated Austrian Prime Minister Count Karl Stürgk in October 1916. At the trial, Adler made a sharp criticism of the government. Sentenced to a long prison term, he was released after the revolution in November 1918.
End of the Habsburg dynasty.
A low grain harvest, a decrease in food supplies to Austria from Hungary, and a blockade by the Entente countries doomed ordinary Austrian city dwellers to hardships and hardships. In January 1918, the workers of the military factories went on strike and returned to work only after the government promised to improve their living and working conditions. In February, a riot broke out at the naval base in Kotor, the participants of which raised the red flag. The authorities brutally suppressed the riots and executed the instigators.
Separatist sentiments grew among the peoples of the empire. At the beginning of the war, patriotic committees of Czechoslovaks (led by Tomasz Masaryk), Poles and South Slavs were created abroad. These committees campaigned in the countries of the Entente and America for the national independence of their peoples, seeking support from official and private circles. In 1919, the Entente states and the USA recognized these emigrant groups as de facto governments. In October 1918, the national councils within Austria, one after another, declared the independence of the lands and territories. The promise of Emperor Charles to reform the Austrian constitution on the basis of the principles of federalism hastened the process of disintegration. In Vienna, Austro-German politicians set up a provisional government for German Austria, while the Social Democrats campaigned for a republic. Charles I abdicated on November 11, 1918. The next day, the Republic of Austria was proclaimed.
First Austrian Republic (1918–1938)
Under the terms of the Treaty of Saint-Germain (1919), the new Austrian state had a small territory and a German-speaking population. Areas with a German population in the Czech Republic and Moravia went to Czechoslovakia, and Austria was forbidden to unite with the newly created German (Weimar) Republic. Significant territories in South Tyrol, inhabited by the Germans, went to Italy. Austria received from Hungary the eastern land of Burgenland.
The Constitution of the Republic of Austria, adopted in 1920, provided for the introduction of the post of president with representative functions, a bicameral legislative body, the lower house of which was to be elected by the entire adult population of the country. The government, headed by the chancellor, was responsible to parliament. New Austria was actually a federation, the population of the city of Vienna and eight lands elected land assemblies (landtags), which enjoyed broad self-government rights.
Second Republic.
Freed from the Nazi yoke, the Austrians sought independence and the restoration of the original name of the country - Austria. With the permission of the occupying authorities, the Second Republic was created. Veteran Social Democracy Karl Renner was appointed chancellor of the provisional government to lead the process of restoring the democratic order. An experienced politician respected by all, Renner, as chancellor, and then president of the republic, contributed a lot to establishing order and stability in the country. In April 1945, he formed a provisional government, which included representatives of his own Socialist Party (the former Social Democratic Party), the People's Party (as the Christian Social Party became known) and the Communists. Has been restored constitutional order, which existed before the dictatorship of Dollfuss. The powers and legislative power of the new Austrian government were expanded step by step. Mandatory participation in elections was introduced, and refusal to vote could be punished by a fine or even imprisonment.
In the November 1945 elections, the Austrian People's Party (ANP) won 85 seats in parliament, the Socialist Party (SPA) 76, and the Communists 4 seats. Subsequently, this balance of power changed little, the communists lost all their seats in 1959. In 1949, a right-wing extremist group, the Union of Independents, was created (in 1955 it was transformed into the Austrian Freedom Party, APS).
Revival of the economy.
In 1945 the Austrian economy was in a state of chaos. The destruction and impoverishment caused by the war, the influx of refugees and displaced persons, the transition of military enterprises to the production of civilian products, shifts in world trade and the presence of borders between the zones of occupation of the Allies - all this created seemingly insurmountable obstacles to economic recovery. For three years, most of the inhabitants of the Austrian cities fought desperately for survival. The occupying authorities helped in organizing the supply of food. Thanks to a good harvest in 1948, food rationing was relaxed, and two years later, all food restrictions were lifted.
In the western zones of occupation, aid from the Marshall Plan and other programs produced quick results. The nationalization of the three largest Austrian banks and almost 70 industrial concerns (coal mining, steel, energy, engineering and river transport) in 1946-1947 gave significant economic advantages. Revenues from state-owned enterprises were directed to further development industry. The ANP proposed to allow elements of private ownership in the nationalized sector of the economy by selling part of the shares to small owners, while the socialists called for an expansion of the scope of state ownership.
The radical monetary reform stabilized and accelerated the recovery of the economy. Foreign tourists appeared, a vital source of government revenue. The railway stations destroyed during the bombings were rebuilt. In 1954, the volume of products produced by factories and mines exceeded the level of 1938, crops in the fields and vineyards, and logging almost returned to their previous level.
Revival of culture.
With the recovery of the economy, a revival of culture also began. Theaters, musical performances and the development of the arts in the city and province were now funded by the state, and not by wealthy patrons. In Vienna, the main efforts were focused on the restoration of the Cathedral of St. Stefan, and in 1955 the opera house and the Burgtheater were reopened. A second opera house, in Salzburg, opened in 1960.
Austrian schools of all levels, cleansed of the influence of the Nazis, resumed their activities. In addition to the universities in Vienna, Graz and Innsbruck, the University of Salzburg was founded in 1964. Newspapers, magazines, and books began to appear again.
State contract.
The occupying Allied troops were stationed on the territory of Austria for 10 years. In 1943, at a meeting in Moscow, leaders Soviet Union, Great Britain and the United States announced their intention to recreate Austria as an independent, sovereign and democratic state. Until 1948, when Yugoslavia was expelled from the Soviet bloc, Moscow supported Yugoslavia's claims to the border part of Austrian territory. In March 1955, the Kremlin changed its position and invited the Austrian government to send a delegation to Moscow to determine the terms for the conclusion of the State Treaty, which was already signed on May 15, 1955 The State Treaty was signed in Vienna in an atmosphere of great rejoicing.
The state treaty restored the independence and full sovereignty of Austria. It entered into force on July 27, 1955, after which the Allied troops were withdrawn from the country. On October 26, 1955, following the withdrawal of the last foreign military units, the government approved a federal constitutional law declaring the permanent neutrality of Austria and excluding the possibility of joining any military alliances or establishing foreign military bases in Austria.
Economic development
A period of active economic growth.
But since 1873 the process has slowed down due to the stock market crash. The period of "depression" began - almost until the end of the 19th century.
A new upsurge began in 1896 and ended just before the World War, in 1913. During these years, the growth curve crept up almost non-stop, with the exception of a slight decline in 1903-1904.
A particularly powerful breakthrough was made in the construction of railways. In 1870, the total length of the railways in the empire barely exceeded 10 thousand km, and over the next three decades, the length of the steel lines more than tripled.
The leading positions in the economy of the empire belonged to the Austro-Czech industrial complex. The region was famous for its rich deposits of coal and ore, convenient and cheap transport facilities; a huge advantage was the proximity to Germany with its rapidly growing economic potential.
The Czech Republic was the most highly developed of all parts of Austria-Hungary. Almost 60% of industrial enterprises were concentrated here, 65% of all those employed in the industry. The Czech Republic provided 59% of the industrial output of the entire empire. Lower Austria and the Vienna industrial region were relegated to second positions by late XIX V. Almost the entire coal industry was concentrated in the Czech lands.
During these years, large centers of transport engineering grew up, producing modern locomotives, cars (Skoda), bicycles. The Czech lands became the center of the empire's industrial development; they provided almost 60% of industrial output.
The Industrial Revolution also began in Hungary. The leading branch of production here was the processing of agricultural products, especially wheat. The Hungarian flour milling industry has become the first in Europe and the second in the world in terms of technology. In connection with the rapid development of railway construction, metal processing and mechanical engineering began to develop actively. The development of industry is accelerating by the beginning of the 20th century.
In the countryside, there was a process of stratification among the peasants, and small-land and landless peasants, in order to feed themselves, were forced to leave in search of work in the cities.
The state took measures to introduce into agriculture advanced technologies. Opened state higher educational establishments for the training of specialists - agronomists, livestock breeders, soil scientists. Schools were set up in some provinces to teach modern methods winemaking and horticulture.
At the same time, the dominance of backward agrarian relations and petty-bourgeois forms of life in the outlying regions of the empire (Eastern Galicia, Bukovina, Subcarpathian Rus, Dalmatia, northeastern regions of Hungary) had a significant effect on the overall balance.
Even in 1910 in agriculture a little more than half of the amateur population of the empire was employed, and only 23% - in industry and crafts.
In the agrarian outskirts, over 80% of the population was employed in agriculture in 1910. excess rural population was forced to go overseas in search of work. Bo the second half of the XIX century. Over 2 million people left Austria-Hungary.
In general, urban development lagged behind: in the empire there were only 7 cities with a population exceeding 100 thousand inhabitants. More than 2 million people lived in Vienna before the war, and more than 1 million lived in Budapest.
In general, in the last decades before the Great War (1870-1914), Austria-Hungary made significant progress in overcoming its relative economic backwardness.
Domestic political development of Austria-Hungary in 1867-1914. The national question in the empire. The crisis of dualistic statehood.
dualism system
In 1867, the Austro-Hungarian agreement was adopted, which transformed the Habsburg empire into a dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, consisting of two independent states in internal affairs - Austria and Hungary.
Franz Joseph was now Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. The constitution of 1848 was returned to the Hungarians. A new, so-called December constitution was issued in Austria. So the empire became a constitutional monarchy, but the emperor retained great rights (he approved laws, convened and dissolved the Austrian and Hungarian parliaments). The emperor also acted as chairman at meetings of governments, appointed and dismissed heads of government and general Austro-Hungarian ministers.
The empire had 3 general ministries: military, finance and foreign affairs. In addition, the flag, the army, the financial system and foreign policy. There were no customs borders between Austria and Hungary.