So, to begin with, let's answer a far from new question that arises in many schoolchildren and not only: "XVIII - what century is it?" Let's try to figure it out in this article.

The mystery of Latin numbers, or the answer to the question: "XVIII - what century is it?"

Often people complain that Roman numerals are very difficult for them. In fact, there is nothing difficult here. Everything obeys a completely understandable logic.

So, in the case of the number XVIII, it must be deciphered, starting from the very beginning. So X is ten. Accordingly, the number will be clearly greater than 10, since the remaining digits are to the right of the main one. The fact is that if we had the number IX, then it would already be 9, since the unit on the left is subtracted from 10. So, let's look further. V is 5, and the last part, respectively, is 3. All the elements are summed up and we get the finished number - 18. But in parallel with the question of which XVIII century is this, another difficulty arises. Which year can be attributed to the 18th century - 1750 or 1829? There is only one answer here: 1750, since 1829 will already be the 19th century.

History of the 18th century. Education

So, when we figured out where which century is, let's dwell on the history of this period. Let's start with the fact that Europe in the 18th century experienced a grandiose event in its history - the Enlightenment. This term is familiar to many. One may wonder: XVIII - what century is this, but one cannot help but know the features of this phenomenon. Each country did it differently. But what was common to all was the collapse of feudalism.

Enlightenment is a natural process that inevitably began with the fall of the feudal system. It is humanistic and gravitates toward formal law, seeing in it a guarantee of freedom and a better life. Enlightenment as a phenomenon not only influenced the mental development of Europe. It boldly criticized obsolete and obsolete forms of life and way of life, preserved since the Middle Ages.

The main ideas of the English Enlightenment

Thus, Locke highlighted moral qualities and landmarks, viewing the state as an agreement of the people. He believed that the only natural regulator of interpersonal and social relations are the norms of morality, morality and behavior.

They had to be established, according to the philosopher, "by universal tacit agreement." The history of the 18th century completely determined the further path of development of many countries, including Great Britain. British politicians believed that the highest goal- not the happiness of society, but the happiness of an individual, personal exaltation.

Locke also emphasized that all people are born with a set of strengths and abilities that will help them achieve almost anything. But only constant efforts, as the philosopher believed, contribute to the realization of the potential inherent in each. Only personal creative effort will help a person succeed in life. In saying this, the 18th century very accurately captured the need of society in that period.

French Enlightenment

Unlike the ideas of the English Enlightenment, Rousseau highlights the society, and not just one individual. According to his ideas, initially the society owned all the power, but then it betrayed the power to the rulers so that they acted in its interests. Rousseau was a supporter of the Democratic-Republican state. Civil equality will be achieved only when every citizen can participate in governance.

Montesquieu, in turn, insists that any country must adapt to the climate, and to religion, and to the nature of the people. The philosopher also considers the best form state structure republican form. But, not seeing the possibility of realizing it in modern states, he stops at In this case, the ruler will have only the executive power, and the legislative power - to the elected parliament.

No, you will not be oblivious, the century is insane and wise! ..
A.N. Radishchev

In a series of centuries European history The 18th century occupies a special place. There were times of more grandiose accomplishments, but there was no era more complete in style, more, so to speak, "whole." The well-known art critic N. Dmitrieva calls it the last century of the domination of aristocratic culture. Hence its refinement and this very “stylishness”, sometimes to the detriment of depth. And at the same time, this is the era of affirmation of new values ​​in the life of Europeans, values ​​that are still alive today and which, in fact, determine the current face of European civilization.
Under the melodic chimes of harpsichords and harps, several revolutions took place simultaneously in the life, heads and hearts of Europeans, of which only two we usually call proper “revolutions”: the Great French Revolution and the War of Independence of the United States of America. Meanwhile, they only put full stops in the sentences that smelled of blood and gunpowder, which Europe diligently wrote throughout the 18th century.
So, first a little about the revolutions.

Revolution on the tables

The main achievement of the "eighteenth century" is that it basically ended the famine in the main countries of Europe. Let the “bread riots” in Paris not really bother us: more often they rebelled because of the lack or high cost of the already familiar white bread. So the frivolous phrase of Marie Antoinette (“If the people have no bread, let them eat cakes”) is somewhat not so frivolous. Yes, interruptions in the supply of bread in big cities happened, however, in terms of absolutely famine, Europe shot back in full at the very beginning of the 18th century, when during a crop failure, even black bread began to be served at the table of Madame Maintenon.
In the 18th century, the European menu changed dramatically. The old triad (bread meat wine) is complemented by new foods: potatoes, corn, spinach, green peas, tea, coffee and chocolate (which are becoming more and more popular delicacies). Yes, and the former three "whales" of the European diet are significantly changing their "face". Since the middle of the 18th century in France, rye bread has been replaced by wheat bread in milk (the famous "French booths" were brought to Europe on their bayonets by Napoleon's soldiers).
With the improvement of animal husbandry, the market for meat is gradually saturated, extremely constrained by the powerful increase in population in the previous three centuries. Of course, for most Europeans, meat is still not available in the most useful form: in the form of corned beef and all sorts of smoked meats. However, with fish it was still more difficult: they said that the poor could only enjoy the aroma of fresh fish.
Finally, the climate and taste preferences also determined the characteristics of the consumption of alcoholic beverages. The south and southwest of Europe chose wine, the north and northwest beer, and the most dashing and cold northeast , of course, vodka.
The influx of sugar (generally speaking, while very expensive) made it possible to harvest fruits and berries (and vitamins for the winter) for the future. True, at the beginning of the 18th century, jam was still such a rare and valuable product that, for example, the Parisians presented it as a gift to Peter the Great.
All these seemingly purely culinary innovations have made a real revolution. Suffice it to say that Britain, which did not know the shortage of meat products, owes much to this powerful population growth in the 18th century, without which, in fact, the British Empire would not have happened. And the love of American colonists for tea led to their indignation at the rise in duties on tea introduced by English officials (the so-called "Boston Tea Party"). Figuratively speaking, the United States of America was born from a cup of spilled tea.
The revolution on the tables moved forward the development of society. Without it, Europe and North America would not have become the hegemon of the rest of the world in the 19th century.
(By the way, the 18th century came to grips with the laying of the European table, which was greatly facilitated by the production of porcelain, gourmetism instead of gluttony and an increase in hygiene standards. The rules of conduct at the table, dishes and cutlery came to us (at least at the level of embassy and restaurant banquets) from there, from "the eighteenth century").

Revolution in the mind

The 18th century is usually called the Age of Enlightenment, although this word itself is too sluggish and approximately defines the processes that went on in the minds of Europeans between 1700 and 1804 (I indicate the year of I. Kant's death).
European thinkers break with theology and delimit the realm of philosophy proper from natural science. According to the Newtonian mechanistic picture of the world, God is needed only as the one who gave the first impetus to the development of nature, and then the world rolled away from him quite separately.
The 18th century is the century of practitioners, which is why thinkers are not satisfied with empty scholastic speculations. The criterion of truth is experience. Any pathos and rhetoric seem out of place under any circumstances. Dying of cancer, the marquise, whom Rousseau served, emits gases, declares that a woman capable of such a thing will still live, and gives her soul to God, one might say, with a boldly careless smile.
Philosophers admire the perfection of the world (Leibniz) and mercilessly criticize it (encyclopedists), sing praises to reason and the progress of civilization (Voltaire) and declare progress and reason to be enemies of the natural rights of man (Rousseau). But all these theories now, at a distance of years, do not seem mutually exclusive. They all revolve around a person, his ability to understand the world and transform it according to your needs and ideas of "the best".
At the same time, for a very long time, philosophers are convinced that a person is reasonable and good by nature, that only “circumstances” are to blame for his misfortunes. Literacy and potatoes are planted by the monarchs themselves. The general mood of European philosophy of the 18th century can be called "cautious optimism", and its slogan Voltaire's call to everyone "cultivate his own garden."
Alas, the bloody horrors of the French Revolution will force the benevolent delusion of philosophers to be radically reconsidered, but the next century will do this. However, the purely European idea of ​​individual rights will be established then, in the 18th century, will be established as the most basic value.

Revolution in the hearts

The "Age of Reason" would not have taken place in all its splendor without a revolution in the hearts. The individual is gradually emancipated, aware of his inner world as important and valuable. The emotional life of Europeans is becoming richer and more refined.
Immortal evidence of this was the great music of the 18th century, perhaps one of the highest achievements in the history of mankind.
The remarkable French composer of the early 18th century, J.F. Rameau was the first to formulate the inherently valuable role of music, which was previously considered only an aid to the word. He wrote: “In order to truly enjoy music, we must completely dissolve in it” (quoted from: G. Koenigsberger, p. 248).
The music expressed the emotions of the time much more accurately and more subtly than the censored word, clamped down by conventions. For the educated European, it has become an urgent need. In the libraries of Czech and Austrian castles, musical folders are crowded on the shelves along with books: musical novelties were read here from the leaf, like newspapers, and just as eagerly!
The music of the 18th century is still full of a lot of conventions, given formulas. It was the presence of these common places that allowed composers to be so prolific (over 40 operas by G.F. Handel, more than 200 violin concertos by A. Vivaldi, more than 100 symphonies by I. Haydn!) At the same time, it is still so democratic that it even gives a chance and amateurs: Zh.Zh. Rousseau composes an opera, which is a success at court, and the king himself, terribly out of tune, sings his favorite arietta from there.
The music of the 18th century was closely connected with life and everyday life. Bach hoped that his sacred music could be performed by the choir of parishioners in the church, and the most beloved household dance, the minuet, became an integral part of any symphony until the era of Beethoven.
Every country in the 18th century realized its identity through music. German G.F. Handel brought the magnificent Italian opera seria to foggy London. But the ancient stories seemed to the British public too abstract and lifeless. Practically without changing the musical form, Handel proceeds to create oratorios, which, as it were, are the same operas, but only in a concert performance, while they are written to the scenes from the Bible that the listeners experienced passionately. And the widest public responds with enthusiasm to this, Handel's spiritual oratorios are becoming a national treasure, their performance is poured into patriotic demonstrations.
The result of the musical development of the 18th century is the work of V.A. Mozart. Brilliant Austrian introduces into music new theme the theme of the fate of its creator, that is, it introduces the personality of a contemporary with his simple and urgent desires, joys and fears. “In general, Man is a creature of God” thanks to this, in music, it turns into a person of a particular era, acquires the features of a real personality and destiny

Revolution in manners

A strictly hierarchical feudal society always pays Special attention etiquette. It is a means of emphasizing the status (ordered inequality) of social position.
Of course, etiquette continues to dominate relations between people in the 18th century. Ambassadors delay presentation of credentials if papers do not arrive in time to confirm that their nobility dates back to at least the 14th century. Otherwise, during the presentation ceremony in Versailles, the king will not be able to hug and kiss the ambassador's wife, but only greet her! Etiquette dominates the minds of the courtiers to such an extent that some of them quite seriously assure that the French Revolution broke out because Necker, the comptroller general of finances, appeared to the king in shoes with bows, and not with buckles!
However, the monarchs themselves are already quite tired of all these conventions. Louis XV hides from the bonds of etiquette in the boudoirs of his beloved, Catherine the Great in her Hermitage, and Marie Antoinette cannot swallow a bite at the traditional public royal meal and is sated after, already alone.
The court is opposed by the salon, aristocratic and bourgeois, where the owners and guests communicate briefly. The tone is set by the most august persons. The regent of France, Philippe d'Orléans Jr., proclaims at his orgies: "Everything is forbidden here except pleasure!"
But the ice floe of feudal etiquette is melting slowly and unevenly. Back in 1726, the lackeys of a noble lord can beat with sticks the fashionable author de Voltaire for a daring answer to their master. As early as 1730, the church could refuse to bury the famous actress Adrienne Lecouvreur (despite the fact that she was the mistress of the marshal of France), because during her lifetime she was engaged in the “shameful craft of a hypocrite.”
But twenty years later, in the same France, the status of the artist is changing, the artist will literally force the king to respect his human dignity. And it was like that. Offended by Louis the Fifteenth, the famous master of pastel portrait Latour for a long time refused to perpetuate the Marquise de Pompadour. When she managed to persuade the capricious, the artist undressed in front of her almost to the shirt. During the session, the king entered. “How, madam, you swore to me that we would not be disturbed!” yelled Latour and rushed to collect the crayons. The king and his master barely persuaded the pastel virtuoso to continue the session.
Of course, in a feudal society, everything is determined by rank, not by talent. Mozart writes that at the table of the Salzburg archbishop his place is higher than a lackey, but lower than a cook. But at about this time, already bourgeois England was burying the "actor", the great actor D. Garrick, in Westminster Abbey!
The crisis of feudal society gives rise to a new idea of ​​man. Now the ideal is not a feudal lord or a court noble, but a private person, " a kind person in France, a gentleman in England. By the end of the century in these countries, not nobility, but success, talent and wealth determine the status of an individual in society.
Here is a typical anecdote on the subject. Napoleon hated the composer Cherubini. Once, at a reception in the palace, after the introduction of all those present, the emperor again defiantly inquired about the name of "this gentleman." "Still Cherubini, sire!" The maestro answered him sharply.
In other countries, the emancipation of the individual will take almost half of the next century.

Peter discovers Europe

In the 18th century, another great power, Russia, entered the European political scene. The "presentation" of the new political giant took place in the spring and summer of 1717, when the embassy of the still mysterious, but already slightly Europeanized "Muscovites" visited a number of European capitals.
Alas, neither in Paris nor in Berlin were they fascinated by the Russian heroes, led by Tsar Peter.
And now the details.
At the end of April of that year, the Russians appeared on the French border. Versailles sent one of his most elegant courtiers, the Marquis de Mailly-Nesle, to meet them. The marquis found the Russians, of course, in a tavern, snoring and throwing up. Only Peter spoke with his tongue.

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The most comprehensive reference table of key dates and events history of Russia in the 18th century. This table is convenient to use for schoolchildren and applicants for self-study, in preparation for tests, exams and the exam in history.

The 18th century in the history of Russia is a cruel, even merciless century, which decided to change in a short time, the time of archery riots and palace coups, the reign of Catherine the Great, peasant wars and the strengthening of serfdom.

But at the same time, this period is characterized by the development of enlightenment, the discovery of new educational institutions, including Moscow University, Academy of Arts. In 1756, the first theater appeared in the capital.

The end of the 18th century - the heyday of the work of artists Dmitry Grigorievich Levitsky, Fyodor Stepanovich Rokotov, sculptor Fedot Shubin.

Now let's take a closer look at the main events of the 18th century and the historical characters of that time. At the end of the 17th century, in 1676, he dies, and his son Fedor Alekseevich takes the throne. Peter Alekseevich, who later became emperor, will become king in 1682.

In 1689, Peter, at the suggestion of his mother, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina, marries Evdokia Lopukhina, which means that he reaches the age of majority, as it was believed at that time.

Sophia, who wanted to remain on the throne, raised archers against Peter, but the rebellion was suppressed, after which Sophia was imprisoned in, and the throne passes to Peter, although until 1696 his brother Ivan Alekseevich was Peter's formal co-ruler.

He had a rather remarkable appearance. His height was 2m 10 cm, he was narrow in the shoulders, had long arms and an unusual gait, so that his close associates had to not only follow him, but run.

From the age of 6, Peter began to learn to read and write and received an encyclopedic education at that time. Left without a father, Peter was engaged in self-education. With the permission of Princess Sophia, he creates a personal amusing guard, and later it was these two amusing regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky that played a big role when Peter came to power. In addition, the young tsar's favorite pastime was shooting the boyars with steamed turnips.

Gradually, the king also had "favorite" close associates, and these were different people. Alexander Danilovich Menshikov, or simply Aleksashka, the son of a palace groom, who from the position of the royal batman became the most serene prince, richest man; "German" (Dutch), who became the main adviser to the king after his accession to the throne.

It was he who advised Peter to establish foreign trade, but the problem was one of the two well-known Russian troubles - roads; Russia needed access to the sea through Sweden and Turkey. Peter I undertakes, the second of which was successful and ended with the foundation of the Taganrog fortress (on Cape Taganiy Rog).

The war with Turkey that began in 1697 showed that Russia needed loans, allies and weapons. For this, the Great Embassy is sent to Europe, in which Peter I was listed as a simple person - constable Peter Alekseevich. He was the first Russian tsar to visit Europe.

Returning from a trip, and plunging back into life in Russia, Peter hated it, decided to completely redo it, and, as you know, he succeeds.

The reforms of Peter I, with which he began his transformations, were as follows:

• army, created a mercenary army, which he dresses in an almost European uniform and puts at the head of foreign officers.
• He transferred the country to a new chronology, from the Nativity of Christ, the old was conducted from the creation of the world. January 1, 1700 in Russia began to celebrate the New Year.
• He ordered every 10 thousand households to build 1 ship, as a result, Russia received a large fleet.
• - self-government was introduced in the cities, burmisters were put at the head of the cities. Although this "Europeanization" of cities was completed.

In 1700, Peter I decides to start a war with Sweden, which ended in 1721. It started unsuccessfully, Peter was defeated near Narva, fled the battlefield even before the battle began, but repented of this and decided to rebuild his army. Transformations were made based on the needs of the troops. For the war, cannons were needed, as a result, the bells of Russian churches are poured onto them, then metallurgical enterprises are built.

By the middle of the century, 75 metallurgical enterprises operated in the country, which fully met the country's needs for pig iron, almost half of the products were exported. It was necessary to arm the army, so arms factories are being built. In addition, Peter I orders the construction of linen factories. Shipbuilding, rope, leather and glass production are developing. Galleys are being built at shipyards, which played a decisive role in the defeat.

Peter introduces military service - recruitment - from 20 households 1 person went to serve for 25 years; also for 25 years, he introduces compulsory service to the nobility. These measures made it possible to quickly create new army- 20 thousand sailors and 35 thousand ground troops.

Peter I understands that Russia needs knowledge and money. To do this, he forced hundreds of young nobles and boyars to go abroad to study, fiscal officers were assigned to monitor them; created a number technical universities(Higher Artillery School), where Western professors were teachers.

In order to encourage not only nobles to study, but also ordinary people Peter issues a decree, according to which, everyone who graduates from the gymnasium will know foreign languages, will receive the nobility.

To raise the economy, the king in 1718-1724. introduces a poll tax (a male soul). The tax was heavy and exceeded the solvency of the people. This has led to an increase in arrears.

To stop thefts, tk. everyone was actively stealing, and the first thief was Menshikov, the tsar orders not only the suspect, but his entire family to be hanged on the rack. A number of additional fees are introduced - a fee for a beard, for wearing a Russian dress, those who did not drink coffee were fined.

In order not to spend money on hired labor, Peter I introduces serf labor. Villages were assigned to factories, artisans were assigned to cities. By a decree of 1736, factory workers were assigned to manufactories forever and were called "eternally given." This form of labor hindered the development of Russia, got rid of it only in the 19th century.

In addition, Peter I seeks to develop trade. They impose customs duties on imported goods much more than on exported goods. As a result, by the end of the Northern War, Russia had a developed economy, but it was a serf.

The time of Peter's reign is the time of transformations in Russia, the time of reforms. In addition to those listed above, Peter carried out administrative and social reforms, and he also changed the judicial system.

1. Peter divides the country into provinces, at the head of the provinces was the governor-general, whose only form of punishment was the death penalty;
2. Peter in 1711-1721 abolished the order system, created collegiums-prototypes of ministries. The head of the collegium was appointed by the king "according to the mind, and not according to the nobility of the family", i.e. a good education was necessary for the service;
3. In 1711, the Senate became the highest state body, which, in the absence of the king, performed its functions;
4. At the head of everything state power was Emperor Peter I. This title was approved by Peter himself in 1721 after the end of the war with Sweden.

In 1722, the "Table of Ranks" was introduced, according to which all service people were divided into 14 categories, the lowest rank was the ensign. Those who rose to the 8th category received the nobility. The judicial system was changed - "they were judged not with a word, but with a pen", i.e. all court cases were drawn up in writing and judged on the basis of written laws, which made it possible for judges to take new bribes.
In 1703, St. Petersburg became the capital of Russia, which was built on the bones of serfs. Peter I forcibly resettled about 1000 nobles in St. Petersburg.

In 1725, along with the death of Peter I, began. During the years of the reign, from 1725 to 1727, and from 1727 to 1730, Menshikov performed the functions of the emperor. During the reign, from 1730 to 1740, and Ioan Antonovich, from 1740 to 1741, various kinds of German adventurers were in power.

When, who ascended the throne in November 1741, they played a prominent role, the Razumovskys - the favorites of the empress. He became Elizabeth's heir. He pursued a policy that was not accepted by the Russian nobility. As a result, in 1762, after another coup, his wife, Catherine II, ascended the throne at the age of 33. It was announced that her husband Peter was killed "accidentally".

34 years of reign went down in history as the "golden age of the nobility", because. she pursued a pro-noble policy. Following her husband, Peter III, she allowed the nobles not to serve, conducted a general survey in 1765, i.e. divided the land among the nobles. There was an opportunity to buy and sell a pledge, which did not give the treasury a penny, but all the nobility was on the side of Catherine.

In addition, she gave the nobles for their service, 600 thousand serfs, for example, got several thousand people. In the interests of the nobility, it deprives the peasants of their last rights - under the fear of hard labor it was forbidden to complain about the landowner, it was allowed to trade in serfs "at retail", i.e. Families were mercilessly divided.

Thus, if for the nobility the end of the 18th century was the golden period of history, then for the peasants it was the most terrible period of slavery. During her reign, Catherine II relied on the personal devotion of favorites, brought up a whole galaxy of Russian politicians, suppressed revolutions by all means, was sick of the ideas of the philosopher Voltaire, read the books of Rousseau and Montesquieu, but perceived the Enlightenment in her own way, in an original way.

She believed that education should affect only the upper strata of society, did not give freedom to the peasants, because. this would lead to a riot. Catherine II (1773-1775) was especially frightened, which was attended by serfs, Cossacks, working people, Bashkirs, Kalmyks. Peasants' War was defeated, but Catherine learned the main lesson from her - you can’t give freedom to the peasants, and did not abolish serfdom.

Transformations of Catherine the Great

1. Abolished state monopolies on tobacco and some other activities, which contributed to their development.
2. Created a variety of training educational institutions, for example, the Free Economic Society, the Institute of Noble Maidens. Yes, in Volnoy economic society studied and introduced agriculture, technical innovations (for each invention they gave prizes), potatoes are being introduced through the efforts of this society (the initiator is Andrey Bolotov).
3. Under Catherine, the construction of manufactories expanded, new industries appeared, such as hosiery, the number of manufactories increased by 2 times, while they were not only serfs, but also hired, i.e. the first workers from the peasantry appear (the right to otkhodnichestvo), foreign investment.
3. Development of new lands. To develop new territories in the south of the country (Crimea, Kuban, South Ukraine), she gives them to the nobles. After a couple of years, he realizes that this is ineffective and invites "foreigners" - the Greeks founded Mariupol, the Armenians - the village of Chaltyr, the Bulgarians bring viticulture. In addition, Catherine announces that those peasants who run away and settle in new lands will be free.
4. Catherine II did not sell Alaska to America, but rented it out for 100 years so that the Americans would master it.

After the death of Catherine II, her son (1796-1801) becomes emperor. Under him, domestic policy was also pro-noble and pro-serf. Serfdom is becoming more widespread. However, relations between the emperor and the nobility become extremely tense, after the next innovations of Paul I.

Paul forbade noble assemblies in the provinces, he, at his whim, could exile some nobles and exalt others. In addition, the rupture of relations with England hit the income of the landowners, because. agricultural products were exported there. The result of this policy was a conspiracy, Paul was killed in 1801 and his son Alexander ascended the throne. Thus ended the 18th century in Russia.

Thus, the 18th century in the history of Russia was characterized by the following:

1. Ever since the reign of Peter I, a tradition has been established that all reforms are carried out by the state.
2. The modernization of Russia is carried out according to the catch-up version, and we take from the West what we like.
3. Modernization is carried out at the expense of their own people, i.e. Russia is a self-colony.
4. Any modernization is accompanied by bureaucratization.

The eighteenth century in the history of Russia was marked by the reign of two great enlightened monarchs - reformers, Peter I and Catherine II. Russia in the 18th century is briefly characterized not only by palace coups, the tightening of serfdom, peasant and archery riots, but also by military victories, the development of education, the modernization of the army, navy and society as a whole.

Emperors of Russia in the 18th century

First Russian emperor Peter was proclaimed, it happened in 1721, after Russia defeated Sweden in northern war. He was elevated to the throne at the age of ten in 1682 by the Naryshkins with the support of Patriarch Joachim. The second contender for the throne was Ivan Alekseevich, who was in poor health. However, the relatives of Princess Sophia and Ivan Alekseevich Miloslavsky prompted the archers to rebel, which ended in the murder of many supporters of Peter's mother, after which Princess Sophia became the de facto ruler.

Ivan and Peter were proclaimed kings. During the reign of Princess Sophia, Peter was away from the palace. In the villages of Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky, from his peers, he created two "amusing regiments", of which, over time, they became the elite units of Peter's real army. Unable to get the knowledge he needed from his compatriots, the future Emperor spent a lot of time in the German Quarter, getting to know foreigners and studying their way of life, and began an affair with Anna Mons.

Natalya Kirillovna, the mother of Peter I, dissatisfied with her son's behavior, married him to Evdokia Lopukhina, who bore Peter two sons, Alexei and Alexander. Princess Sophia, who did not want to give up power, tried to organize a new streltsy revolt, but most of the troops remained loyal to Peter. Sophia tried to escape, but in Vozdvizhensky she was returned to Moscow and was soon imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent. Ivan Alekseevich gave all power to Peter, but formally remained co-ruler until his death in 1696.

In 1697-1698, I, as part of the Great Embassy, ​​under the name of Peter Mikhailov, a constable of the Preobrazhensky regiment, went to Europe. After a new streltsy rebellion, Peter returned to Moscow, where he began an inquiry, as a result of which several hundred archers were executed, and Evdokia Lopukhina was forcibly sent to the Suzdal monastery. After returning from Europe, Peter began his transformation, deciding to change Russia according to the European model.

First, with his decrees, he achieved external imitation of Europeans in dress and manners, introduced the chronology from the birth of Christ, the celebration of the New Year - the first of January. More significant structural reforms followed. The army was reformed public administration, the Russian church hierarchy was subordinate to the state. Also, Peter carried out financial reform. Educated people were needed for transformations and military campaigns. Therefore, schools were opened: mathematical and navigational sciences, medical, engineering. And in St. Petersburg - the Maritime Academy.

For construction in 1704-1717. Petersburg, as well as for work in factories and factories, the labor of serfs was used. To teach children to read and write, digital schools were opened in the province. The result of the military reforms was the victory of Peter in the Northern War of 1700-1721, the Caspian campaign of 1722-1723, thanks to which the Russian Empire gained access to the Baltic Sea and a number of territories. However, there was also an unsuccessful Russian-Turkish war, as a result of which Russia lost access to the Sea of ​​Azov. In 1712, Peter married for the second time to Ekaterina Alekseevna, from whom he left two daughters, Anna and Elizabeth.

In 1725, when Peter died, it was Catherine who became the first Empress of Russia. However, in fact, the country at that time was ruled by Menshikov and the Supreme Privy Council, created on the initiative of A.P. Tolstoy. At this time, Russia did not wage significant wars. The government of Catherine in 1726 concluded an alliance agreement with Austria, also, at that time the Academy of Sciences was created and Bering's expedition took place. In 1727, Catherine died, and Peter the Second became emperor, on whose behalf Menshikov ruled the country, and then the princes Dolgoruky. His reign was not long either. In 1730, Peter died of smallpox.

After him, Anna Ioannovna ruled, invited to the throne by the Privy Council with the condition of limiting her powers. However, she later restored absolutism. Anna carried out some reforms: the reform of the army, streamlining the work of the state. institutions, fair trial declaration, Senate reform, navy reform. Also, she established the Office of Secret Investigative Affairs, which was engaged in the search for conspirators and simply dissatisfied, all this happened with huge abuses, which were later associated with the name of the favorite of the Empress Biron.

Foreign policy was a continuation of Peter's policy. In 1740, Anna died and left the young Ivan Antonovich as the heir, under whom Biron became regent, and after that - the mother of the emperor, Anna Leopoldovna .. In 1741 she overthrew him. She continued the policy of her father, Peter I. Restored the Senate, abolished the Cabinet of Ministers, the activities of the Secret Chancellery became invisible. Elizabeth conducted a population census, abolished customs duties within the country, carried out a tax reform, and expanded the rights of the nobility.

Under her leadership, educational institutions were reorganized, the Academy of Arts was founded, as well as Moscow University. The Winter and Catherine Palaces were built, the architect of which was Rastrelli. As a result of the Russian-Swedish (1741-1743) and Seven Years (1756-1763) wars, Russia received the Kymenegorsk and part of the Savolak province, some lands in Prussia. Elizabeth died in 1761, and Peter became emperor. Under him, the Secret Chancellery was abolished, he began the secularization of church lands, and the Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility was published.

In 1762, as a result of a palace coup, he was overthrown by his wife, Catherine II. She carried out provincial and judicial reforms, strengthened the army and navy, strengthened the bureaucracy, and increased the exploitation of the serfs. Under Catherine, city schools and colleges were created, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens was opened, after which the Educational Society for Noble Maidens was opened. An anatomical theater, an observatory, a botanical garden, a physics office, a library, and workshops were opened at the Academy of Sciences.

The fight against epidemics became a state event, smallpox vaccination was introduced, many hospitals and shelters were opened. During the reign of Catherine there were several conspiracies and riots: the Peasant War, led by Emelyan Pugachev, 1773-1775, in 1771 - the Plague Riot. With the accession of Catherine, a new territorial growth began Russian Empire. In 1774, after the Turkish war, important fortresses at the mouths of the Don, the Dnieper and the Kerch Strait retreated to Russia. In 1783 Catherine annexed the Crimea, Kuban and Balta.

After the second Turkish war - the coastal strip between the Dniester and the Bug. And after the divisions of Poland - part of Belarus, Volyn, Podolsk and Minsk regions, Lithuanian provinces, the Duchy of Courland. In 1796, Catherine the Great died, and Pavel ascended the throne. He made several counter-reforms. Paul adopted a law on succession to the throne, effectively excluding women from contenders for the throne, weakened the positions of the nobility, improved the position of the peasants, carried out an administrative reform aimed at centralizing power, and strengthened censorship. As a result military reform, more attention has been paid to the external attributes of the service.

The main direction in foreign policy Paul - the fight against France, for which Russia joins the anti-French coalition. The commander-in-chief was the one who liberated Northern Italy and made the transition through the Alps. However, soon Russia ended the alliance with Austria and withdrew troops from Europe. And in 1800, Paul even began preparations for an alliance with Napoleon. These plans were not destined to come true. In 1801, Paul was killed in his own palace.

The main events and wars in the history of Russia in the 18th century

• the abolition of the patriarchate in 1700,
• foundation of St. Petersburg in 1703, the Bulavin uprising of 1707-1708,
• administrative reform of 1708,
• Caspian campaign of 1722-1723,
• establishment of colleges 1718-1721,
• administrative reform of 1719,
• adoption of the imperial title by Peter,
• Russo-Persian War 1722-1723,
• "Table of Ranks" 1722,
• Establishment of the Academy of Sciences in 1724,
• reign of Catherine I 1725-1727,
• reign of Peter I 1727-1730,
• reign of Anna Ioannovna 1730-1740,
• Russian-Turkish war 1735-1739,
• Russian-Swedish war 1741-1743,
• reign of Elizabeth Petrovna,
• governing body Peter III 1761-1762,
• reign of Catherine III 1762-1796,
• Commission on the Code of 1767-1768,
• Plague riot in 1771,
• Peasant war led by Emelyan Pugachev 1773-1775,
• Victories under the command of Suvorov near Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhi and Karasu in 1772,
• Kyuchuk-Kainarzhdiysky world 1774,
• base Black Sea Fleet in 1779,
• annexation of Crimea in 1783,
• Russian-Turkish war 1787-1791,
• Russian-Swedish war 1788-1790,
• Reign 1796-1801

Heroes of Russia in the 18th century

Grigory Alexandrovich Potemkin-Tavrichesky participated in the battles of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768–1774, contributed to the development of the Northern Black Sea region, created and strengthened the Black Sea Fleet, liquidated the Zaporozhian Sich, and in 1783 annexed Crimea to the Russian Empire. Subordinates G.A. Potemkin were such naval commanders and military leaders as A.V. Suvorov, N.V. Repnin, F.F. Ushakov. Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov during the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 inflicted several defeats on the Turkish army, commanded troops in the Crimea in 1776-1787, in 1790 led the assault on the fortress of Izmail, during the Italian campaign of 1799 defeated the French in several battles.

Fedor Fedorovich Ushakov participated in the Russian-Turkish war of 1768–1774, made several trips to the Mediterranean Sea from the Baltic Sea, led the construction of the Black Sea Fleet, which he commanded from 1790, destroyed the Turkish fleet in the decisive battle at Cape Kaliakria in 1791, led the Black Sea squadron in the war against France, but was recalled by Paul in 1800.

Results of the 18th century for Russia

The results of Russia's policy in the 18th century were a significant increase in territory, the conquest of outlets to the Baltic and Black Seas, the modernization of the army, the creation and modernization of the navy, the foundation of many educational institutions, including for women, the strengthening of serfdom, structural transformations in all spheres of life society.