BIOCHEMISTRY (biological chemistry)- biological science that studies the chemical nature of substances that make up living organisms, their transformations and the relationship of these transformations with the activity of organs and tissues. The totality of processes that are inextricably linked with vital activity is commonly called metabolism (see Metabolism and Energy).

The study of the composition of living organisms has long attracted the attention of scientists, since the number of substances that make up living organisms, in addition to water, mineral elements, lipids, carbohydrates, etc., includes a number of the most complex organic compounds: proteins and their complexes with a number of other biopolymers primarily with nucleic acids.

The possibility of spontaneous association (under certain conditions) of a large number of protein molecules with the formation of complex supramolecular structures, for example, the protein coat of the phage tail, some cellular organelles, etc., was established. This made it possible to introduce the concept of self-assembling systems. This kind of research creates the preconditions for solving the problem of the formation of the most complex supramolecular structures, which have the characteristics and properties of living matter, from high-molecular organic compounds that once abiogenically arose in nature.

Modern baptism as an independent science took shape at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Until that time, the questions now considered by B. were studied from different angles by organic chemistry and physiology. Organic chemistry (see), which studies carbon compounds in general, deals, in particular, with the analysis and synthesis of those chemical. compounds found in living tissue. Physiology (see), along with the study of vital functions, also studies chem. processes underlying life. Thus, biochemistry is a product of the development of these two sciences and can be divided into two parts: static (or structural) and dynamic. Static B. is engaged in the study of natural organic matter, their analysis and synthesis, while dynamic biochemistry studies the totality of chemical transformations of various organic compounds in the course of life. Dynamic biochemistry, therefore, is closer to physiology and medicine than to organic chemistry. This explains why B. was originally called physiological (or medical) chemistry.

Like any rapidly developing science, biology soon after its inception began to be divided into a number of separate disciplines: the biochemistry of humans and animals, the biochemistry of plants, the biochemistry of microbes (microorganisms), and a number of others, since, despite the biochemical unity of all living things, in animal and plant organisms there are fundamental differences in the nature of metabolism. First of all, this concerns the processes of assimilation. Plants, unlike animals, have the ability to use simple chemicals to build their bodies, such as carbon dioxide, water, salts of nitric and nitrous acids, ammonia, etc. At the same time, the process of building plant cells requires for its implementation an influx of energy from the outside in the form of sunlight. The use of this energy is primarily carried out by green autotrophic organisms (plants, protozoa - Euglena, a number of bacteria), which in turn themselves serve as food for everyone else, the so-called. heterotrophic organisms (including humans) inhabiting the biosphere (see). Thus, the separation of plant biochemistry into a special discipline is justified both from the theoretical and practical sides.

The development of a number of branches of industry and agriculture (processing of raw materials of plant and animal origin, food preparation, the manufacture of vitamin and hormonal preparations, antibiotics, etc.) led to the separation into a special section of technical biochemistry.

When studying the chemistry of various microorganisms, researchers encountered a number of specific substances and processes of great scientific and practical interest (antibiotics of microbial and fungal origin, various types of fermentations of industrial importance, the formation of protein substances from carbohydrates and the simplest nitrogenous compounds, etc. ). All these questions are considered in the biochemistry of microorganisms.

In the 20th century emerged as a special discipline of the biochemistry of viruses (see Viruses).

The needs of clinical medicine caused the emergence of clinical biochemistry (see).

Of the other sections of biology, which are usually regarded as fairly separate disciplines with their own tasks and specific research methods, one should mention: evolutionary and comparative biology (biochemical processes and chemical composition of organisms at various stages of their evolutionary development), enzymology (structure and the function of enzymes, the kinetics of enzymatic reactions), B. vitamins, hormones, radiation biochemistry, quantum biochemistry - a comparison of the properties, functions and pathways of the transformation of biologically important compounds with their electronic characteristics obtained using quantum chemical calculations (see Quantum biochemistry).

Particularly promising was the study of the structure and function of proteins and nucleic acids on molecular level. This circle of questions is studied by the sciences which have arisen on B.'s joints with biology and genetics, - molecular biology (see) and biochemical genetics (see).

Historical outline of the development of research on the chemistry of living matter. The study of living matter from the chemical side began from the moment when it became necessary to study the constituent parts of living organisms and the processes that take place in them. chemical processes in connection with the demands of practical medicine and agriculture. The studies of medieval alchemists led to the accumulation of a large amount of factual material on natural organic compounds. In the 16th - 17th centuries. the views of alchemists were developed in the works of iatrochemists (see Iatrochemistry), who believed that the vital activity of the human body can be correctly understood only from the standpoint of chemistry. Thus, one of the most prominent representatives of iatrochemistry, the German physician and naturalist F. Paracelsus, put forward a progressive position on the need for a close connection between chemistry and medicine, while emphasizing that the task of alchemy is not to make gold and silver, but to create what is strength and virtue medicine. Iatrochemists introduced honey. practice preparations of mercury, antimony, iron and other elements. Later, I. Van Helmont suggested that there are special principles in the “juices” of a living body - the so-called. "enzymes" involved in a variety of chemical. transformations.

In the 17th -18th centuries. the theory of phlogiston became widespread (see Chemistry). The refutation of this fundamentally erroneous theory is connected with the works of M. V. Lomonosov and A. Lavoisier, who discovered and approved the law of conservation of matter (mass) in science. Lavoisier made the most important contribution to the development not only of chemistry, but also to the study of biol, processes. Developing Mayow's earlier observations (J. Mayow, 1643-1679), he showed that during respiration, as in the combustion of organic substances, oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide is released. At the same time, he, together with Laplace, showed that the process of biological oxidation is also a source of animal warmth. This discovery stimulated research on the energy of metabolism, as a result of which, already at the beginning of the 19th century. the amount of heat released during the combustion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins was determined.

major events in the second half of the 18th century. began research R. Reaumur and Spallanzani (L. Spallanzani) on the physiology of digestion. These researchers were the first to study the effect of the gastric juice of animals and birds on various types of food (ch. arr. meat) and laid the foundation for the study of digestive juice enzymes. The emergence of enzymology (the doctrine of enzymes), however, is usually associated with the names of K. S. Kirchhoff (1814), as well as Payen and Persot (A. Payen, J. Persoz, 1833), who first studied the effect of the enzyme amylase on starch in vitro.

An important role was played by the work of J. Priestley and especially J. Ingenhouse, who discovered the phenomenon of photosynthesis (late 18th century).

At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. other fundamental research in the field of comparative biochemistry was also carried out; at the same time, the existence of the circulation of substances in nature was established.

From the very beginning, the successes of static biochemistry were inextricably linked with the development of organic chemistry.

The impetus for the development of the chemistry of natural compounds was the research of the Swedish chemist K. Scheele (1742 - 1786). He isolated and described the properties of a number of natural compounds—lactic, tartaric, citric, oxalic, malic acids, glycerin, and amyl alcohol, and others. methods of quantitative elemental analysis of organic compounds. Following this, attempts began to synthesize natural organic substances. Achievements- synthesis in 1828 of urea by F. Weller, acetic acid by A. Kolbe (1844), fats by P. Berthelot (1850), carbohydrates by A. M. Butlerov (1861) - had especially great importance, because they showed the possibility of in vitro synthesis of a number of organic substances that are part of animal tissues or are the end products of metabolism. Thus, the complete failure of the widely used in the 18-19 centuries was established. vitalistic ideas (see Vitalism). In the second half of the 18th - early 19th century. many other important studies were also carried out: uric acid was isolated from urinary stones (Bergman and Scheele), from bile - cholesterol [Konradi (J. Conradi)], from honey - glucose and fructose (T. Lovitz), from leaves green plants - the pigment chlorophyll [Pelletier and Cavent (J. Pelletier, J. Caventou)], creatine was discovered in the muscles [Chev-rel (M. E. Chevreul)]. It was shown the existence of a special group of organic compounds - plant alkaloids (Serturner, Meister, etc.), which later found application in honey. practice. The first amino acids, glycine and leucine, were obtained from gelatin and bovine meat by hydrolysis [J. Proust], 1819; Brakonno (H. Braconnot), 1820].

In France, in the laboratory of C. Bernard, glycogen was discovered in the liver tissue (1857), the ways of its formation and the mechanisms regulating its breakdown were studied. In Germany, in the laboratories of E. Fischer, E. F. Goppe-Seyler, A. Kossel, E. Abdergalden and others, the structure and properties of proteins, as well as the products of their hydrolysis, including enzymatic, were studied.

In connection with the description of yeast cells (K. Cognard-Latour in France and T. Schwann in Germany, 1836-1838), they began to actively study the process of fermentation (Liebig, Pasteur, and others). Contrary to the opinion of Liebig, who considered the fermentation process as a purely chemical process that proceeds with the obligatory participation of oxygen, L. Pasteur established the possibility of the existence of anaerobiosis, that is, life in the absence of air, due to the energy of fermentation (a process that, in his opinion, is inextricably linked with vital activity cells, e.g. yeast cells). This issue was clarified by the experiments of M. M. Manasseina (1871), who showed the possibility of sugar fermentation by destroyed (rubbing with sand) yeast cells, and especially by the works of Buchner (1897) on the nature of fermentation. Buchner managed to obtain a cell-free juice from yeast cells, capable, like live yeast, of fermenting sugar to form alcohol and carbon dioxide.

The emergence and development of biological (physiological) chemistry

Accumulation a large number information regarding the chemical composition of plant and animal organisms and the chemical processes occurring in them, led to the need for systematization and generalizations in the field of B. The first work in this regard was the textbook by J. E. Simon, Handbuch der angewandten medizinischen Chemie (1842). Obviously, it was from that time that the term "biological (physiological) chemistry" was established in science.

Somewhat later (1846), Liebig's monograph Die Tierchemie oder die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Physiologie und Pathologie was published. In Russia, the first textbook of physiological chemistry was published by A. I. Khodnev, a professor at Kharkov University, in 1847. Periodic literature on biological (physiological) chemistry began to appear regularly from 1873 in Germany. This year Mali (L. R. Maly) published Jahres-Bericht uber die Fortschritte der Tierchemie. In 1877, E. F. Goppe-Seyler founded Science Magazine Zeitschr. fur physiologische Chemie", later renamed "Hoppe-Seyler's Zeitschr. fur physiologische Chemie. Later, biochemical journals began to be published in many countries of the world in English, French, Russian and other languages.

In the second half of the 19th century on medical faculties Many Russian and foreign universities established special departments of medical, or physiological, chemistry. In Russia, the first department of medical chemistry was organized by A. Ya. Danilevsky in 1863 at Kazan University. In 1864, A. D. Bulyginsky founded the Department of Medical Chemistry at the Medical Faculty of the Moscow University. Soon the departments of medical chemistry, later renamed the departments of physiological chemistry, appeared at the medical faculties of other universities. In 1892, the Department of Physiological Chemistry, organized by A. Ya. Danilevsky, began functioning at the Military Medical (Medical-Surgical) Academy in St. Petersburg. However, the reading of individual sections of the course of physiological chemistry was carried out there much earlier (1862-1874) at the Department of Chemistry (A.P. Borodin).

B.'s true heyday came in the 20th century. At the very beginning, the polypeptide theory of the structure of proteins was formulated and experimentally substantiated (E. Fischer, 1901-1902, and others). Later, a number of analytical methods, including micromethods, allowing to study the amino acid composition minimum quantities protein (several milligrams); the method of chromatography (see), first developed by the Russian scientist M. S. Tsvet (1901 - 1910), methods of X-ray diffraction analysis (see), "labeled atoms" (isotope indication), cytospectrophotometry, electron microscopy (see) became widespread. . Preparative protein chemistry is making major strides, developing effective methods isolation and fractionation of proteins and enzymes and determination of their molecular weight [Cohen (S. Cohen), Tiselius (A. Tiselius), Svedberg (T. Swedberg)].

The primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of many proteins (including enzymes) and polypeptides is deciphered. A number of important, biologically active protein substances are synthesized.

The greatest achievements in the development of this direction are associated with the names of L. Pauling and Corey (R. Corey) - the structure of the polypeptide chains of the protein (1951); V. Vigno - structure and synthesis of oxytocin and vasopressin (1953); Sanger (F. Sanger) - the structure of insulin (1953); Stein (W. Stein) and S. Moore - deciphering the formula of ribonuclease, creating an automaton for determining the amino acid composition of protein hydrolysates; Perutz (M. F. Perutz), Kendrew (J. Kendrew) and Phillips (D. Phillips) - decoding using the methods of X-ray structural analysis of the structure and the creation of three-dimensional models of the molecules of myoglobin, hemoglobin, lysozyme and a number of other proteins (1960 and subsequent years) .

Of outstanding importance were the works of Sumner (J. Sumner), who first proved (1926) the protein nature of the urease enzyme; studies of Northrop (J. Northrop) and Kunitz (M. Kunitz) on purification and obtaining crystalline preparations of enzymes - pepsin and others (1930); V. A. Engelhardt on the presence of ATPase activity in the contractile muscle protein myosin (1939 - 1942), etc. Big number works is devoted to studying the mechanism of enzymatic catalysis [Michaelis and Menten (L. Michaelis, M. L. Menten), 1913; R. Wilstetter, Theorell, Koshland (H. Theorell, D. E. Koshland), A. E. Braunstein and M. M. Shemyakin, 1963; Straub (F. V. Straub) and others], complex multi-enzyme complexes (S. E. Severin, F. Linen and others), the role of cell structure in the implementation of enzymatic reactions, the nature of active and allosteric centers in enzyme molecules (see. Enzymes), the primary structure of enzymes [B. Shorm, Anfinsen (S. V. Anfinsen), V. N. Orekhovich and others], regulation of the activity of a number of enzymes by hormones (V. S. Ilyin and others). The properties of "enzyme families" - isoenzymes are being studied [Markert, Kaplan, Wroblewski (S. Markert, N. Kaplan, F. Wroblewski), 1960-1961].

An important step in the development of B. was the decoding of the mechanism of protein biosynthesis with the participation of ribosomes, informational and transport forms of ribonucleic acids [Zh. Brachet, F. Jacob, Monod (J. Monod), 1953-1961; A. N. Belozersky (1959); A. S. Spirin, A. A. Baev (1957 and subsequent years)].

Brilliant works of Chargaff (E. Chargaff), Zh. Davidson, especially J. Watson, F. Crick and Wilkins (M. Wilkins), come to the end with elucidation of structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (see). The double-stranded structure of DNA and its role in the transmission of hereditary information are being established. The synthesis of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) is carried out by A. Kornberg (1960 - 1968), Weiss (S. Weiss), S. Ochoa. One of the central problems of modern B. is being solved (1962 and subsequent years) - the RNA-amino acid code is being deciphered [Crick, M. Nirenberg, F. Crick, J. H. Matthaei, and others].

For the first time, one of the genes and the phx174 phage are synthesized. The concept of molecular diseases associated with certain defects in the DNA structure of the chromosomal apparatus of the cell is introduced (see Molecular Genetics). A theory of regulation of the work of cistrons (see), responsible for the synthesis of various proteins and enzymes (Jacob, Monod), is being developed, the study of the mechanism of protein (nitrogen) metabolism continues.

Previously, the classical studies of IP Pavlov and his school revealed the basic physiological and biochemical mechanisms of the digestive glands. Especially fruitful was the commonwealth of the laboratories of A. Ya. Danilevsky and M. V. Nentsky with the laboratory of IP Pavlov, a cut led to the clarification of the place of formation of urea (in the liver). F. Hopkins and his collaborators. (England) established the value of previously unknown food components, developing on this basis new concept diseases caused by nutritional deficiencies. The existence of interchangeable and irreplaceable amino acids is established, protein norms in nutrition are being developed. The intermediate exchange of amino acids is deciphered - deamination, transamination (A. E. Braunshtein and M. G. Kritsman), decarboxylation, their mutual transformations and features of metabolism (S. R. Mardashev and others). The mechanisms of the biosynthesis of urea (G. Krebs), creatine and creatinine are being elucidated, a group of extractive nitrogenous substances of muscles - the dipeptides carnosine, carnitine, anserine - is being discovered and subjected to detailed study [V. S. Gulevich, D. Ackermann,

S. E. Severin and others]. The peculiarities of the process of nitrogen metabolism in plants are being studied in detail (D. N. Pryanishnikov, V. L. Kretovich, and others). A special place was occupied by the study of disorders of nitrogen metabolism in animals and humans with protein deficiency (S. Ya. Kaplansky, Yu. M. Gefter, and others). The synthesis of purine and pyrimidine bases is carried out, the mechanisms of formation of urinary acid are elucidated, the breakdown products of hemoglobin (pigments of bile, feces and urine) are studied in detail, the pathways of heme formation and the mechanism of occurrence of acute and congenital forms of porphyria and porphyrinuria are deciphered.

Outstanding progress has been made in deciphering the structure of the most important carbohydrates [A. A. Colley, Tollens, Killiani, Haworth (B.C. Tollens, H. Killiani, W. Haworth) and others] and the mechanisms of carbohydrate metabolism. The transformation of carbohydrates in the digestive tract under the influence of digestive enzymes and intestinal microorganisms (in particular, in herbivores) has been clarified in detail; clarifies and expands the work on the role of the liver in carbohydrate metabolism and maintaining the concentration of sugar in the blood at a certain level, begun in the middle of the last century by C. Bernard and E. Pfluger, deciphers the mechanisms of glycogen synthesis (with the participation of UDP-glucose) and its breakdown [K . Corey, Leloir (L. F. Leloir) and others]; schemes for the intermediate exchange of carbohydrates are created (glycolytic, pentose cycle, tricarboxylic acid cycle); the nature of individual intermediate products of metabolism is clarified [Ya. O. Parnas, G. Embden, O. Meyerhof, L. A. Ivanov, S. P. Kostychev, A. Harden, Krebs, F. Lipmann, S. Cohen, V. A . Engelhardt and others]. The biochemical mechanisms of carbohydrate metabolism disorders (diabetes, galactosemia, glycogenosis, etc.) associated with hereditary defects in the corresponding enzyme systems are being elucidated.

Outstanding successes have been achieved in deciphering the structure of lipids: phospholipids, cerebrosides, gangliosides, sterols and sterides [Tirfelder, A. Vindaus, A. Butenandt, Ruzicka, Reichstein (H. Thierfelder, A. Ruzicka, T. Reichstein) and others].

The works of M. V. Nentsky, F. Knoop (1904) and H. Dakin create a theory of β-oxidation of fatty acids. Development contemporary ideas about the ways of oxidation (with the participation of coenzyme A) and synthesis (with the participation of malonyl-CoA) of fatty acids and complex lipids is associated with the names of Leloir, Linen, Lipmann, Green (D. E. Green), Kennedy (E. Kennedy), etc.

Significant progress has been made in studying the mechanism of biological oxidation. One of the first theories of biological oxidation (the so-called peroxide theory) was proposed by A. N. Bach (see Biological Oxidation). Later, a theory appeared, according to a cut, various substrates of cellular respiration undergo oxidation and their carbon ultimately turns into CO2 due to the oxygen of not absorbed air, but the oxygen of water (V. I. Palladii, 1908). Later in development modern theory tissue respiration, a major contribution was made by the works of G. Wieland, Thunberg (T. Tunberg), L. S. Stern, O. Warburg, Euler, D. Keilin (N. Euler) and others. Warburg is credited with the discovery of one of the coenzymes of dehydrogenases - nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), flavin enzyme and its prosthetic group, respiratory iron-containing enzyme, later called cytochrome oxidase. He also proposed a spectrophotometric method for determining the concentration of NAD and NADP (Warburg test), which then formed the basis quantitative methods determination of a number of biochemical components of blood and tissues. Keilin established the role of iron-containing pigments (cytochromes) in the respiratory catalyst chain.

Of great importance was the discovery of coenzyme A. Lipmann, which made it possible to develop a universal cycle of aerobic oxidation of the active form of acetate - acetyl-CoA (Krebs citric acid cycle).

V. A. Engelhardt, as well as Lipmann, introduced the concept of “energy-rich” phosphorus compounds, in particular ATP (see Adenosine phosphoric acids), in the macroergic bonds of which a significant part of the energy released during tissue respiration is accumulated (see Biological oxidation).

The possibility of the phosphorylation coupled with breath (see) in a chain of the respiratory catalysts which are built in membranes of mitochondrions, was shown by V. A. Belitser and Kalkar (H. Kalckar). A large number of works are devoted to studying the mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation [Cheyne (V. Chance), Mitchell (P. Mitchell), V. P. Skulachev and others].

20th century was marked by deciphering chemical structure of all vitamins known in the crust, the time (see), international units of vitamins are introduced, the needs for vitamins of humans and animals are established, a vitamin industry is being created.

No less significant progress has been made in the field of chemistry and biochemistry of hormones (see); the structure was studied and steroid hormones of the adrenal cortex were synthesized (Windaus, Reichstein, Butenandt, Ruzicka); established the structure of thyroid hormones - thyroxine, diiodothyronine [E. Kendall (E. S. Kendall), 1919; Harington (S. Harington), 1926]; adrenal medulla - adrenaline, norepinephrine [Takamine (J. Takamine), 1907]. The synthesis of insulin was carried out, the structure of somatotropic), adrenocorticotropic, melanocyte-stimulating hormones was established; isolated and studied other hormones of protein nature; schemes for the interconversion and exchange of steroid hormones have been developed (N. A. Yudaev and others). The first data on the mechanism of action of hormones (ACTH, vasopressin, etc.) on metabolism have been obtained. The mechanism of regulation of the functions of the endocrine glands according to the feedback principle has been deciphered.

Significant data have been obtained in the study of the chemical composition and metabolism of a number of important organs and tissues (functional biochemistry). Features are set in chemical composition nervous tissue. There is a new direction in B. - neurochemistry. A number of complex lipids that make up the bulk of brain tissue have been identified - phosphatides, sphingomyelins, plasmalogens, cerebrosides, cholesterides, gangliosides [Tudikhum, Welsh (J. Thudichum, H. Waelsh), A. B. Palladium, E. M. K reps, etc.] . The main patterns of nerve cell metabolism are clarified, the role of biologically active amines - adrenaline, norepinephrine, histamine, serotonin, γ-amino-butyric acid, etc. is deciphered. Various psychopharmacological substances are introduced into medical practice, opening up new possibilities in the treatment of various nervous diseases. Chemical transmitters of nervous excitation (mediators) are studied in detail, they are widely used, especially in agriculture, various cholinesterase inhibitors for insect pest control, etc.

Significant progress has been made in the study of muscular activity. The contractile proteins of muscles are studied in detail (see Muscle tissue). The most important role of ATP in muscle contraction has been established [V. A. Engelhardt and M. N. Lyubimova, Szent-Gyorgyi, Straub (A. Szent-Gyorgyi, F. B. Straub)], in the movement of cell organelles, penetration of phages into bacteria [Weber, Hoffmann-Berling (N. Weber, H. Hoffmann-Berling), I. I. Ivanov, V. Ya. Aleksandrov, N. I. Arronet, B. F. Poglazov and others]; the mechanism of muscle contraction at the molecular level is studied in detail [Huxley, Hanson (H. Huxley, J. Hanson), G. M. Frank, Tonomura (J. Tonomura), etc.], the role of imidazole and its derivatives in muscle contraction (G E. Severin); theories of two-phase muscular activity are being developed [Hasselbach (W. Hasselbach)], etc.

Important results have been obtained in the study of the composition and properties of blood: the respiratory function of blood has been studied in normal conditions and in a number of pathological conditions; the mechanism of oxygen transfer from lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs has been elucidated [I. M. Sechenov, J. Haldane, D. van Slyke, J. Barcroft, L. Henderson, S. E. Severin, G. E. Vladimirov, E. M. Krepe, G. V. Derviz]; clarified and expanded ideas about the mechanism of blood coagulation; the presence in the blood plasma of a number of new factors has been established, in the congenital absence of which, there are observed in the blood various forms hemophilia. The fractional composition of blood plasma proteins (albumin, alpha, beta and gamma globulins, lipoproteins, etc.) has been studied. A number of new plasma proteins (properdin, C-reactive protein, haptoglobin, cryoglobulin, transferrin, ceruloplasmin, interferon, etc.) have been discovered. The system of kinins, biologically active polypeptides of blood plasma (bradykinin, kallidin), which play an important role in the regulation of local and general blood flow and are involved in the mechanism of development of inflammatory processes, shock and other pathological processes and conditions, has been discovered.

The development of a number of special research methods played an important role in the development of modern B.: isotopic indication, differential centrifugation (separation of subcellular organoids), spectrophotometry (see), mass spectrometry (see), electron paramagnetic resonance (see), etc.

Some prospects for the development of biochemistry

B.'s successes largely determine not only the current level of medicine, but also its possible further progress. One of the main problems of B. and molecular biology (see) is the correction of defects in the genetic apparatus (see Gene therapy). Radical therapy of hereditary diseases associated with mutational changes in certain genes (i.e., DNA sections) responsible for the synthesis of certain proteins and enzymes is, in principle, possible only by transplantation of similar genes synthesized in vitro or isolated from cells (for example, bacteria). "healthy" genes. A very tempting task is also to master the mechanism of regulation of the reading of genetic information encoded in DNA and to decipher the mechanism of cell differentiation in ontogenesis at the molecular level. The problem of therapy for a number of viral diseases, especially leukemia, will probably not be solved until the mechanism of interaction of viruses (in particular, oncogenic ones) with the infected cell becomes completely clear. In this direction, intensive work is being carried out in many laboratories around the world. Elucidation of the picture of life at the molecular level will allow not only to fully understand the processes occurring in the body (biocatalysis, the mechanism for using the energy of ATP and GTP in the performance of mechanical functions, the transmission of nervous excitation, the active transport of substances through membranes, the phenomenon of immunity, etc.), but also will open up new opportunities in the creation of effective medicines, in the fight against premature aging, the development of cardiovascular diseases (atherosclerosis), and life extension.

Biochemical centers in the USSR. In the system of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Institute of Biochemistry. A. N. Bach, Institute of Molecular Biology, Institute of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry. I. M. Sechenova, Institute of Protein, Institute of Physiology and Biochemistry of Plants, Institute of Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganisms, branch of the Institute of Biochemistry of the Ukrainian SSR, Institute of Biochemistry of the Arm. SSR and others. The USSR Academy of Medical Sciences has the Institute of Biological and Medicinal Chemistry, the Institute of Experimental Endocrinology and Chemistry of Hormones, the Institute of Nutrition, and the Department of Biochemistry of the Institute of Experimental Medicine. There are also a number of biochemical laboratories in other institutes and scientific institutions of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR, the academies of the Union republics, in universities (departments of biochemistry of Moscow, Leningrad and other universities, a number of medical institutes, Military Medical Academy, etc.), veterinary, agricultural and other scientific institutions. In the USSR there are about 8 thousand members of the All-Union Biochemical Society (UBO), a cut is included in the European Federation of Biochemists (FEBS) and in the International Biochemical Union (IUB).

Radiation biochemistry

Radiation biochemistry studies the changes in metabolism that occur in the body when it is exposed to ionizing radiation. Irradiation causes ionization and excitation of cell molecules, their reactions with free radicals arising in the aqueous medium (see) and peroxides, which leads to disruption of the structures of biosubstrates of cellular organelles, balance and interconnections of intracellular biochemical processes. In particular, these shifts, in combination with post-radiation effects from the damaged c. n. With. and humoral factors give rise to secondary metabolic disorders that determine the course of radiation sickness. An important role in the development of radiation sickness is played by the acceleration of the breakdown of nucleoproteins, DNA and simple proteins, inhibition of their biosynthesis, disruption of the coordinated action of enzymes, as well as oxidative phosphorylation (see) in mitochondria, a decrease in the amount of ATP in tissues and increased lipid oxidation with the formation of peroxides (see Radiation sickness , Radiobiology , Medical radiology).

Bibliography: Afonsky S. I. Biochemistry of animals, M., 1970; Biochemistry, ed. H. N. Yakovleva. Moscow, 1969. ZbarekY B. I., Ivanov I. I. and M and r-d and sh e in S. R. Biological chemistry, JI., 1972; Kretovich V. JI. Fundamentals of plant biochemistry, M., 1971; JI e n and N d-e r A. Biochemistry, trans. from English, M., 1974; Makeev I. A., Gulevich V. S. and Broude JI. M. Course of biological chemistry, JI., 1947; Mahler G.R. and KordesYu. G. Fundamentals of biological chemistry, trans. from English, M., 1970; Ferdman D. JI. Biochemistry, M., 1966; Filippovich Yu. B. Fundamentals of biochemistry, M., 1969; III tr and at F. B. Biochemistry, the lane with English. from Hungarian., Budapest, 1965; R a r o r t S. M. Medizinische Bioc-hemie, B., 1962.

Periodicals- Biochemistry, M., since 1936; Questions of medical chemistry, M., since 1955; Journal of evolutionary biochemistry and physiology, M., since 1965; Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Biological Sciences Series, M., since 1958; Molecular biology, M., since 1967; Ukrainian Byuchemist Journal, Kshv, since 1946 (1926-1937 - Naukov1 Notes of the Ukrainian Byuchemist Sheti-tutu, 1938-1941 - Byuchemist Journal); Advances in biological chemistry, JI., since 1924; Successes of modern biology, M., since 1932; Annual Review of Biochemistry, Stanford, since 1932; Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, N. Y., since 1951 (1942-1950 - Archives of Biochemistry); Biochemical Journal, L., since 1906; Biochemische Zeitschrift, V., since 1906; Biochemistry, Washington, since 1964; Biochimica et biophysica acta, N. Y. - Amsterdam, since 1947; Bulletin de la Soci6t<5 de chimie biologique, P., с 1914; Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, L., с 1960; Hoppe-Seyler’s Zeitschrift fiir physiologische Chemie, В., с 1877; Journal of Biochemistry, Tokyo, с 1922; Journal of Biological Chemistry, Baltimore, с 1905; Journal of Molecular Biology, L.-N.Y., с 1960; Journal of Neurochemistry, L., с 1956; Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, N. Y., с 1903; См. также в ст. Клиническая биохимия, Физиология, Химия.

B. radiation- Kuzin A. M. Radiation biochemistry, M., 1962; P about -mantsev E. F. and others river. Early radiation-biochemical reactions, M., 1966; Fedorova T. A., Tereshchenko O. Ya. and M and z at r and to V. K. Nucleic acids and proteins in the body with radiation injury, M., 1972; Cherkasova L. S. and others. Ionizing radiation and metabolism, Minsk, 1962, bibliogr.; Altman K. I., Gerber G. B. a. O k a d a S. Radiation biochemistry, v. 1-2, N.Y.-L., 1970.

I. I. Ivanov; T. A. Fedorova (happy).

Blood biochemistry is one of the most common and informative tests prescribed by doctors when diagnosing most diseases. Seeing its results, one can judge the state of work of all body systems. Almost every disease is reflected in the indicators of a biochemical blood test.

What you need to know

Blood sampling is carried out from a vein on the elbow, less often from the veins on the hand and
forearm.

About 5-10 ml of blood is drawn into the syringe.

Later, blood for biochemistry in a special test tube is placed in a specialized device that has the ability to determine the necessary indicators with high accuracy. It should be borne in mind that different devices may have slightly different limits of the norm for certain indicators. The results will be ready with the express method within a day.

How to prepare

Biochemical research is carried out in the morning on an empty stomach.

Before donating blood, you must refrain from drinking alcohol during the day.
The last meal should be the night before, no later than 18.00. Do not smoke two hours before the test. Also avoid intense physical activity and, if possible, stress. Preparation for analysis is a responsible process.

What is included in biochemistry

Distinguish between basic and advanced biochemistry. It is impractical to determine all the indicators that are possible. It goes without saying that the price and quantity of blood required for analysis increases. There is a certain conditional list of basic indicators that are almost always assigned, and there are many additional ones. They are prescribed by a doctor depending on the clinical symptoms and the purpose of the study.

The analysis is done using a biochemical analyzer in which test tubes with blood are placed.

Basic indicators:

1. total protein.
2. Bilirubin (direct and indirect).
3. Glucose.
4. ALT and AST.
5. Creatinine
6. Urea.
7. electrolytes.
8. Cholesterol.

Additional indicators:

1. Albumen.
2. Amylase.
3. alkaline phosphatase.
4. GGTP.
5. Triglycerides.
6. C-reactive protein.
7. rheumatoid factor.
8. Creatinine phosphokinase.
9. Myoglobin.
10. Iron.

The list is incomplete, there are many more narrowly focused indicators for diagnosing metabolism and dysfunctions of internal organs. Now consider some of the most common blood biochemical parameters in more detail.

Total protein (65-85 grams/liter)

Displays the total amount of protein in blood plasma (both albumin and globulin).
It can be elevated with dehydration, due to water loss with repeated vomiting, with intense sweating, intestinal obstruction and peritonitis. It also increases with multiple myeloma, polyarthritis.

This indicator decreases with prolonged starvation and malnutrition, diseases of the stomach and intestines, when protein intake is impaired. In liver diseases, its synthesis is disturbed. Protein synthesis is also impaired in some hereditary diseases.

Albumin (40-50 grams/liter)

One of the plasma protein fractions. With a decrease in albumin, edema develops, up to anasarca. This is due to the fact that albumin binds water. With its significant decrease, water does not stay in the bloodstream and exits into the tissues.
Albumin is reduced under the same conditions as total protein.

Total bilirubin (5-21µmol/liter)

Total bilirubin includes direct and indirect.

All causes of an increase in total bilirubin can be divided into several groups.
Extrahepatic - various anemias, extensive hemorrhages, that is, conditions accompanied by the destruction of red blood cells.

Hepatic causes are associated with the destruction of hepatocytes (liver cells) in oncology, hepatitis, cirrhosis of the liver.

Violation of the outflow of bile due to obstruction of the bile ducts by stones or a tumor.

With increased bilirubin, jaundice develops, the skin and mucous membranes become icteric.

The rate of direct bilirubin is up to 7.9 µmol / liter. Indirect bilirubin is determined by the difference between total and direct. Most often, its increase is associated with the breakdown of red blood cells.

Creatinine (80-115 µmol/liter)

One of the main indicators characterizing the function of the kidneys.

This indicator increases in acute and chronic kidney disease. Also with increased destruction of muscle tissue, for example, with rhabdomyolysis after overly intense physical activity. May be elevated in diseases of the endocrine glands (hyperthyroidism, acromegaly). If a person eats a large amount of meat products, increased creatinine is also guaranteed.

Creatinine below normal has no special diagnostic value. May be reduced in vegetarians, in pregnant women in the first half of pregnancy.

Urea (2.1-8.2 mmol/liter)

Shows the state of protein metabolism. Describes the functioning of the kidneys and liver. An increase in urea in the blood may be due to a violation of kidney function, when they cannot cope with its excretion from the body. Also, with increased protein breakdown or increased intake of protein into the body with food.

A decrease in blood urea is observed in the third trimester of pregnancy, with a low-protein diet and severe liver disease.

Transaminases (ALT, AST, GGT)

Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) is an enzyme synthesized in the liver. In blood plasma, its content should not normally exceed 37 U / liter in men and 31 U / liter in women.

Alanine aminotransferase (ALT)- as well as the AST enzyme, it is synthesized in the liver.
The norm in the blood in men is up to 45 units / liter, in women - up to 34 units / liter.

In addition to the liver, a large number of transaminases are found in the cells of the heart, spleen, kidneys, pancreas, and muscles. An increase in its level is associated with the destruction of cells and the release of this enzyme into the blood. Thus, an increase in ALT and AST is possible in the pathology of all the above mentioned organs, accompanied by cell death (hepatitis, myocardial infarction, pancreatitis, necrosis of the kidney and spleen).

Gamma-Glutamyltransferase (GGT) involved in the metabolism of amino acids in the liver. Its content in the blood increases with toxic liver damage, including alcohol. The level is also increased in the pathology of the biliary tract and liver. Always increases with chronic alcoholism.

The norm of this indicator is up to 32 U / liter for men, up to 49 U / liter for women.
Low GGT, as a rule, is determined by cirrhosis of the liver.

Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) (120-240 U/liter)

This enzyme is found in all tissues of the body and is involved in the energy processes of oxidation of glucose and lactic acid.

Increased in diseases of the liver (hepatitis, cirrhosis), heart (heart attack), lungs (heart attack-pneumonia), kidneys (various nephritis), pancreas (pancreatitis).
A decrease in LDH activity below the norm is diagnostically insignificant.

Amylase (3.3-8.9)

Alpha-amylase (α-amylase) is involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates, breaking down complex sugars into simple ones.

Increase the activity of the enzyme acute hepatitis, pancreatitis, parotitis. Some medications (glucocorticoids, tetracycline) may also be affected.
Reduced activity of amylase in pancreatic dysfunction and toxicosis of pregnant women.

Pancreatic amylase (p-amylase) is synthesized in the pancreas and enters the intestinal lumen, where the excess is almost completely dissolved by trypsin. Normally, only a small amount enters the bloodstream, where the rate in adults is normal - no more than 50 units / liter.

Its activity is increased in acute pancreatitis. It can also be increased when taking alcohol and certain medications, as well as with surgical pathology complicated by peritonitis. A decrease in amylase is an unfavorable sign of the pancreas losing its function.

Total cholesterol (3.6-5.2 mmol/l)

On the one hand, an important component of all cells and an integral part of many enzymes. On the other hand, it plays an important role in the development of systemic atherosclerosis.

Total cholesterol includes high, low and very low density lipoproteins. Elevated cholesterol in atherosclerosis, impaired liver function, thyroid gland, obesity.

Atherosclerotic plaque in the vessel - a consequence of high cholesterol

Reduced cholesterol with a diet that excludes fats, with hyperthyroidism, with infectious diseases and sepsis.

Glucose (4.1-5.9 mmol/liter)

An important indicator of the state of carbohydrate metabolism and the state of the pancreas.
Increased glucose can be after eating, so the analysis is taken strictly on an empty stomach. It also increases when taking certain drugs (glucocorticosteroids, thyroid hormones), with pancreatic pathology. Constantly elevated blood sugar is the main diagnostic criterion for diabetes mellitus.
Low sugar can be with an acute infection, starvation, an overdose of hypoglycemic drugs.

Electrolytes (K, Na, Cl, Mg)

Electrolytes play an important role in the system of transport of substances and energy into the cell and back. This is especially important for the proper functioning of the heart muscle.

A change both in the direction of increasing concentration and in the direction of decreasing leads to cardiac arrhythmias, up to cardiac arrest.

Norms of electrolytes:

• Potassium (K +) - 3.5-5.1 mmol / liter.
• Sodium (Na +) - 139-155 mmol / liter.
• Calcium (Ca ++) - 1.17-1.29 mmol / liter.
• Chlorine (Cl-) - 98-107 mmol / liter.
• Magnesium (Mg++) - 0.66-1.07 mmol / liter.

Changes in the electrolyte balance are associated with alimentary reasons (impaired entry into the body), impaired renal function, and hormonal diseases. Also, pronounced electrolyte disturbances can be with diarrhea, indomitable vomiting, hyperthermia.

Three days before donating blood for biochemistry with the determination of magnesium, it is necessary not to take its preparations.

In addition, there are a large number of biochemistry indicators that are assigned individually for specific diseases. Before donating blood, your doctor will determine which specific indicators are taken in your situation. The procedural nurse will perform the blood sampling, and the laboratory doctor will provide a transcript of the analysis. The norm indicators are given for an adult. In children and the elderly, they may differ slightly.

As you can see, a biochemical blood test is a very great helper in diagnosis, but only a doctor can compare the results with the clinical picture.

Biochemistry (from the Greek "bios" - "life", biological or physiological) is a science that studies the chemical processes inside the cell that affect the vital activity of the whole organism or its certain organs. The goal of the science of biochemistry is the knowledge of chemical elements, the composition and process of metabolism, and the methods of its regulation in the cell. According to other definitions, biochemistry is the science of the chemical structure of cells and organisms of living beings.

To understand what biochemistry is for, let's imagine the sciences in the form of an elementary table.

As you can see, the basis for all sciences is anatomy, histology and cytology, which study all living things. On their basis, biochemistry, physiology and pathophysiology are built, where they learn the functioning of organisms and the chemical processes inside them. Without these sciences, the others that are represented in the upper sector will not be able to exist.

There is another approach according to which sciences are divided into 3 types (levels):

• Those that study the cellular, molecular and tissue level of life (the sciences of anatomy, histology, biochemistry, biophysics);
• Study pathological processes and diseases (pathophysiology, pathological anatomy);
• Diagnose the body's external response to diseases (clinical sciences such as medicine and surgery).

This is how we found out what place biochemistry, or, as it is also called, medical biochemistry, occupies among the sciences. After all, any abnormal behavior of the body, the process of its metabolism will affect the chemical structure of cells and will manifest itself during the LHC.

What are tests for? What does a biochemical blood test show?

Blood biochemistry is a diagnostic method in the laboratory that shows diseases in various areas of medicine (for example, therapy, gynecology, endocrinology) and helps to determine the functioning of internal organs and the quality of protein, lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, as well as the sufficiency of microelements in the body.

BAC, or a biochemical blood test, is an analysis that provides the widest information regarding a variety of diseases. Based on its results, you can find out the functional state of the body and each organ in a particular case, because any disease that attacks a person will somehow manifest itself in the results of the LHC.

What is included in biochemistry?

It is not very convenient, and it is not necessary, to conduct biochemical studies of absolutely all indicators, and besides, the more there are, the more blood is needed, and also the more they will cost you. Therefore, there are standard and complex tanks. The standard one is prescribed in most cases, but the doctor prescribes an extended one with additional indicators if he needs to find out additional nuances depending on the symptoms of the disease and the goals of the analysis.

Basic indicators.

1. Total protein in the blood (TP, Total Protein).
2. Bilirubin.
3. Glucose, lipase.
4. ALT (Alanine aminotransferase, ALT) and AST (Aspartate aminotransferase, AST).
5. Creatinine
6. Urea.
7. Electrolytes (Potassium, K/Calcium, Ca/Sodium, Na/Chlorine, Cl/Magnesium, Mg).
8. total cholesterol.

The Expanded Profile includes any of these additional metrics (as well as others that are very specific and narrowly focused and not included in this list).

Biochemical general therapeutic standard: adult norms

Deciphering biochemistry

The decoding of the data that was described above is carried out according to certain values ​​\u200b\u200band norms.

1. total protein is the amount of total protein found in the human body. Exceeding the norm indicates various inflammations in the body (problems of the liver, kidneys, genitourinary system, burn disease or cancer), dehydration (dehydration) during vomiting, sweating on a particularly large scale, intestinal obstruction or multiple myeloma, a lack of imbalance in a nutritious diet, prolonged starvation, bowel disease, liver disease, or in violation of synthesis as a result of hereditary diseases.
2. 
   Albumen It is the protein fraction in the blood with a high concentration. It binds water, and its low amount leads to the development of edema - water does not stay in the blood and enters the tissues. Usually, if the protein decreases, then the amount of albumin decreases.
3. Analysis of bilirubin in plasma, general(direct and indirect) is the diagnosis of the pigment that is formed after the breakdown of hemoglobin (it is toxic for humans). Hyperbilirubinemia (exceeding the level of bilirubin) is called jaundice, and there are clinical suprahepatic jaundice (including in newborns), hepatocellular and subhepatic jaundice. It indicates anemia, extensive hemorrhages subsequently hemolytic anemia, hepatitis, liver destruction, oncology and other diseases. It is frightening with liver pathology, but it can also increase in a person who has suffered blows and injuries.
4. Glucose. Its level determines carbohydrate metabolism, that is, energy in the body, and how the pancreas works. If there is a lot of glucose, it can be diabetes, physical activity, or the intake of hormonal drugs has affected, if it is low, hyperfunction of the pancreas, diseases of the endocrine system.
5. Lipase - it is a fat-breaking enzyme that plays an important role in metabolism. Its increase indicates pancreatic disease.
6. ALT- "liver marker", it monitors the pathological processes of the liver. An increased rate informs about problems in the work of the heart, liver or hepatitis (viral).
7. AST- "cardiac marker", it shows the quality of the work of the heart. Exceeding the norm indicates a violation of the heart and hepatitis.
8. Creatinine- provides information about the functioning of the kidneys. Increased if a person has acute or chronic kidney disease or there is destruction of muscle tissue, endocrine disorders. High in people who eat a lot of meat products. And therefore, creatinine is lowered in vegetarians, as well as in pregnant women, but it will not affect the diagnosis very much.
9. Urea analysis- This is a study of the products of protein metabolism, the work of the liver and kidneys. An overestimation of the indicator occurs when there is a violation in the work of the kidneys, when they cannot cope with the removal of fluid from the body, and a decrease is typical for pregnant women, with diet and disorders associated with the liver.
10. ggt in biochemical analysis informs about the metabolism of amino acids in the body. Its high rate is visible in alcoholism, and also if the blood is affected by toxins or dysfunction of the liver and biliary tract is assumed. Low - if there is chronic liver disease.
11. Ldg in the study characterizes the course of energy processes of glycolysis and lactate. A high rate indicates a negative effect on the liver, lungs, heart, pancreas or kidneys (pneumonia, heart attack, pancreatitis, and others). Low lactate dehydrogenase, as well as low creatinine, will not affect the diagnosis. If LDH is elevated, the causes in women may be the following: increased physical activity and pregnancy. In newborns, this figure is also slightly overestimated.
12. electrolyte balance indicates the normal process of metabolism in the cell and out of the cell back, including the process of the heart. Nutritional disorders are often the main cause of electrolyte imbalance, but it can also be vomiting, diarrhea, hormonal imbalance, or kidney failure.
13. cholesterol(cholesterol) total - increases if a person has obesity, atherosclerosis, dysfunction of the liver, thyroid gland, and decreases when a person goes on a low-fat diet, with septicemia or other infection.
14. Amylase- an enzyme found in saliva and pancreas. A high level will show if there are cholecystitis, signs of diabetes mellitus, peritonitis, parotitis and pancreatitis. It will also increase if you use alcoholic beverages or drugs - glucocorticoids, it is also typical for pregnant women during toxicosis.

There are a lot of biochemistry indicators, both basic and additional, and complex biochemistry is also carried out, which includes both basic and additional indicators at the discretion of the doctor.

Pass biochemistry on an empty stomach or not: how to prepare for analysis?

A blood test for Bx is a responsible process, and you need to prepare for it in advance and with all seriousness.

These measures are necessary so that the analysis is more accurate and no additional factors affect it. Otherwise, you will have to retake the tests, since the slightest changes in conditions will significantly affect the metabolic process.

Where do they take and how to donate blood

Donating blood for biochemistry occurs by taking blood with a syringe from a vein on the elbow bend, sometimes from a vein on the forearm or hand. On average, 5-10 ml of blood is enough to make the main indicators. If you need a detailed analysis of biochemistry, then the volume of blood is also taken more.

The norm of biochemistry indicators on specialized equipment from different manufacturers may differ slightly from the average limits. Express method means getting results within one day.

The blood sampling procedure is almost painless: you sit down, the procedural nurse prepares a syringe, puts a tourniquet on your arm, treats the injection site with an antiseptic and takes a blood sample.

The resulting sample is placed in a test tube and sent to the laboratory for diagnosis. The laboratory doctor places a plasma sample in a special device that is designed to determine biochemistry parameters with high accuracy. He also carries out the processing and storage of blood, determines the dosage and procedure for conducting biochemistry, diagnoses the results obtained, depending on the indicators requested by the attending physician, and draws up a form of biochemistry results and laboratory and chemical analysis.

Laboratory and chemical analysis is transmitted during the day to the attending physician, who makes a diagnosis and prescribes treatment.

The BAC, with its many diverse indicators, makes it possible to see an extensive clinical picture of a particular person and a particular disease.

What is biochemistry? Biological or physiological biochemistry is the science of the chemical processes that underlie the life of an organism and those that occur inside the cell. The purpose of biochemistry (the term comes from the Greek word "bios" - "life") as a science is the study of chemicals, the structure and metabolism of cells, the nature and methods of its regulation, the mechanism of energy supply for processes inside cells.

Medical biochemistry: the essence and goals of science

Medical biochemistry is a section that studies the chemical composition of the cells of the human body, the metabolism in it (including in pathological conditions). After all, any disease, even in an asymptomatic period, will inevitably leave its mark on the chemical processes in cells, the properties of molecules, which will be reflected in the results of biochemical analysis. Without knowledge of biochemistry, it is impossible to find the cause of the development of the disease and the way to effectively treat it.

Biochemical blood test

What is a blood biochemistry test? A biochemical blood test is one of the methods of laboratory diagnostics in many areas of medicine (for example, endocrinology, therapy, gynecology).

It helps to accurately diagnose the disease and examine the blood sample according to the following parameters:

Alanine aminotransferase (AlAT, ALT);

Cholesterol or cholesterol;

Bilirubin;

Urea;

diastasis;

Glucose, lipase;

Aspartate aminotransferase (AST, AST);

Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT), gamma GT (glutamyl transpeptidase);

Creatinine, protein;

Antibodies to the Epstein-Barr virus.

For the health of each person, it is important to know what blood biochemistry is, and to understand that its indicators will not only provide all the data for an effective treatment regimen, but also help prevent disease. Deviations from normal indicators are the first signal that something is wrong in the body.

blood for liver examination: significance and goals

In addition, biochemical diagnostics will allow monitoring the dynamics of the disease and the results of treatment, creating a complete picture of metabolism, deficiency of microelements in the work of organs. For example, liver biochemistry will become a mandatory analysis for people with impaired liver function. What is this? This is the name of a biochemical blood test to study the quantity and quality of liver enzymes. If their synthesis is disturbed, then this condition threatens the development of diseases, inflammatory processes.

Specificity of liver biochemistry

Biochemistry of the liver - what is it? The human liver consists of water, lipids, glycogen. Its tissues contain minerals: copper, iron, nickel, manganese, so the biochemical study of liver tissues is a very informative and quite effective analysis. The most important enzymes in the liver are glucokinase, hexokinase. The most sensitive to biochemical tests are such liver enzymes: alanine aminotransferase (ALT), gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST). As a rule, the study focuses on the indicators of these substances.

For a full and successful monitoring of their health, everyone should know what “biochemistry analysis” is.

Areas of research in biochemistry and the importance of correctly interpreting the results of the analysis

What does biochemistry study? First of all, metabolic processes, the chemical composition of the cell, the chemical nature and function of enzymes, vitamins, acids. It is possible to evaluate blood parameters by these parameters only if the analysis is correctly deciphered. If all is well, then blood counts for various parameters (glucose level, protein, blood enzymes) should not deviate from the norm. Otherwise, this should be regarded as a signal of a violation of the body.

Deciphering biochemistry

How to decipher the numbers in the analysis results? Below is the main indicators.

Glucose

The level of glucose shows the quality of the process of carbohydrate metabolism. The boundary norm of the content should not exceed 5.5 mmol / l. If the level is lower, then this may indicate diabetes, endocrine diseases, liver problems. Elevated glucose levels may be due to diabetes, exercise, hormonal medications.

Protein

Cholesterol

Urea

This is the end product of protein breakdown. In a healthy person, it should be completely excreted from the body with urine. If this does not happen, and it enters the bloodstream, then it is necessary to check the work of the kidneys.

Hemoglobin

This is a protein in red blood cells that saturates the cells of the body with oxygen. Norm: for men - 130-160 g / l, for girls - 120-150 g / l. A low level of hemoglobin in the blood is considered one of the indicators of developing anemia.

Biochemical blood test for blood enzymes (AlAT, AsAT, CPK, amylase)

Enzymes are responsible for the full functioning of the liver, heart, kidneys, pancreas. Without the right amount of them, a complete exchange of amino acids is simply impossible.

The level of aspartate aminotransferase (AST, AST - a cellular enzyme of the heart, kidneys, liver) should not be higher than 41 and 31 units / l for men and women, respectively. Otherwise, this may indicate the development of hepatitis, heart disease.

Lipase (an enzyme that breaks down fats) plays an important role in metabolism and should not exceed 190 U/L. Elevated levels indicate a violation of the pancreas.

It is difficult to overestimate the importance of biochemical analysis for blood enzymes. What is biochemistry and what it explores, every person who cares about his health must know.

Amylase

This enzyme is found in the pancreas and saliva. It is responsible for the breakdown of carbohydrates and their absorption. Norm - 28-100 units / l. Its high content in the blood may indicate renal failure, cholecystitis, diabetes mellitus, peritonitis.

The results of a biochemical blood test are recorded in a special form, which indicates the levels of substances. Often this analysis is prescribed as an additional one to clarify the proposed diagnosis. When deciphering the results of blood biochemistry, keep in mind that they are also affected by the patient's gender, age and lifestyle. Now you know what biochemistry studies and how to correctly interpret its results.

How to properly prepare for blood donation for biochemistry?

Acute diseases of internal organs;

intoxication;

Avitaminosis;

Inflammatory processes;

For the prevention of diseases during pregnancy;

To clarify the diagnosis.

Blood for analysis is taken early in the morning, and you can’t eat before coming to the doctor. Otherwise, the results of the analysis will be distorted. A biochemical study will show how correct your metabolism and salts in the body are. In addition, refrain from drinking sweet tea, coffee, milk at least an hour or two before blood sampling.

Be sure to answer your question about what biochemistry is before taking the test. Knowing the process and its significance will help you to correctly assess the state of health and be competent in medical matters.

How is blood taken for biochemistry?

The procedure is short and almost painless. From a person in a sitting position (sometimes they offer to lie down on a couch), the doctor takes it after applying a tourniquet. The injection site must be treated with an antiseptic. The sample taken is placed in a sterile tube and sent to the laboratory for analysis.

Quality control of a biochemical study is carried out in several stages:

Preanalytical (preparation of the patient, analysis, transportation to the laboratory);

Analytical (processing and storage of biomaterial, dosing, reaction, analysis of the result);

Post-analytical (filling in the form with the result, laboratory and clinical analysis, sending to the doctor).

The quality of the result of biochemistry depends on the feasibility of the chosen research method, the competence of laboratory assistants, the accuracy of measurements, technical equipment, the purity of reagents, and diet.

Biochemistry for hair

What is hair biochemistry? Biowave is a way of long-term curling of curls. The difference between conventional perm and biowave is fundamental. In the latter case, do not use hydrogen peroxide, ammonia, thioglycolic acid. The role of the active substance is played by an analogue of cystine (biological protein). This is where the name of the hair styling method comes from.

The undoubted advantages are:

Gentle effect on the hair structure;

The blurred line between regrown and bio-curled hair;

The procedure can be repeated without waiting for the final disappearance of its effect.

But before going to the master, the following nuances should be considered:

Biowave technology is relatively complex, and you need to be scrupulous in choosing a master;

The effect is short-term, about 1-4 months (especially on hair that has not been permed, dyed, has a dense structure);

Biowave is not cheap (on average 1500-3500 rubles).

Biochemistry methods

What is biochemistry and what methods are used for research? Their choice depends on his goal and the tasks set by the doctor. They are designed to study the biochemical structure of the cell, examine the sample for possible deviations from the norm and thus help diagnose the disease, find out the dynamics of recovery, etc.

Biochemistry is one of the most effective analyzes for clarifying, diagnosing, monitoring treatment, and determining a successful therapy regimen.

What is Biochemistry?

Issue resolved and closed.

Future doctor, chemist or pharmacist?

3) well, proteins - they also denature, and therefore precipitate! You heat up above 70 degrees and that's it. hydrogen bonds are broken. the protein has lost its shape in space, i.e. the secondary structure broke up (this is when it twisted into a spiral and occupied a certain position in space), only the primary structure did not suffer (amino acids connected in series by peptide bonds "in a line") ... * ___it's like if a sand figure suddenly crumbled into grains of sand and lost its shape in space, although the sand molecules remained the same ___ * well, or in addition to heating, acid and other chemicals, organic solvents (ethanol, for example), salts of heavy metals, you can act on the protein and it will precipitate, more UV radiation, formalin)) ... with a tertiary structure, everything is more complicated. there are also ionic (coo- and NH3 +), hydrophilic, hydrophobic bonds ...

2) protein hydrolysis occurs in an acidic environment, with an increase. temperature. (methods see above) and biochemical hydrolysis is also done by enzymes :) - proteases. peptones are formed from protein, then polypeptides, then alpha-amino acids. in, biochemical method.

1) and if the amino acid has 2 COOH groups, then this acid will have a negative charge and, accordingly, acidic properties, and if there are two OH groups, then a negative charge and alkaline properties. and what features of the condensation reaction - I'm in a stupor, I don't know.

Blood is taken from a finger for small tests: a glucometer - for sugar, they can take for a blood type, to check the level of hemoglobin. Taken from a vein for major tests (hepatitis, AIDS, etc.)


Finger blood??? It's strange... they haven't taken blood from a finger for a long time... what village are you from?


They take more. Everywhere!


this village is called russia)))


In Russia, medicine is one of the best in the world! There are different clinics. And don't call Russia a village! Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, Chelyabinsk, Ufa, Omsk, Novosibirsk and many other cities are all about a million or more in population. And were you there? I was! Dynamics everywhere! The people run, trade, work... and here in Latvia Latvian inhibition is outwardly observed. I saw the picture everywhere: a straight line, the car needs to turn left, of course it slows down a bit, in Russia, the people behind this car will not wait until it turns, they will all go around the side of the road and go further. Because it is important to keep up and do it!

• You can sleep peacefully, but periodically repeat every six months. So doctors recommend.

  In any case, you will have to pass both practice and theory. It is better to learn everything, work out on your own and with a tutor. Themes:
  1. Blood;
  2. Clinical biochemistry;
  3. Muscles;
  4. Deviations and norms;
  5. Amino acids;
  6. Proteins;
  7. Enzymes;
  8. Exchange of amino acids;
  9. Vitamins;
  10. Fats;
  11. Carbohydrates;
  12. Violation of amino acid metabolism;
  13. Transformation of amino acids;
  14. Exchange of nitrogenous bases and nucleotides;
  15. Matrix biosynthoses;
  16. Biosynthoses;
  17. Metabolism and structure of carbohydrates;
  18. Common pathways of catabolism;
  19. Hormonal signaling;
  20. Biochemistry of nitrogenous substances in blood;
  21. Exchange of heme and hemoglobin;
  22. Acid-base state;
  23. Biochemistry of the kidneys;
  24. Biochemistry of the liver.