Peasant reform of Peter 1 briefly. Military reforms of Peter the Great. Reference

21.10.2019

Introduction

“This monarch compared our fatherland with others, taught us to recognize that we are people; in a word, whatever you look at in Russia, everything has its beginning, and whatever is done in the future, they will draw from this source.

I. I. Neplyuev

The personality of Peter I (1672 - 1725) rightfully belongs to the galaxy of outstanding historical figures of world scale. Many studies and works of art are devoted to the transformations associated with his name. Historians and writers differently, sometimes directly opposite, assessed the personality of Peter I and the significance of his reforms. Already the contemporaries of Peter I were divided into two camps: supporters and opponents of his reforms. The dispute continued later. In the XVIII century. M. V. Lomonosov praised Peter, admired his activities. A little later, the historian Karamzin accused Peter of betraying the "truly Russian" principles of life, and called his reforms a "brilliant mistake."

At the end of the 17th century, when the young Tsar Peter I came to the Russian throne, our country was going through a turning point in its history. In Russia, unlike the main Western European countries, there were almost no large industrial enterprises capable of providing the country with weapons, fabrics, and agricultural implements. She had no access to the seas - neither the Black nor the Baltic, through which she could develop foreign trade. Therefore, Russia did not have its own military fleet, which would guard its borders. The land army was built according to outdated principles and consisted mainly of noble militia. The nobles were reluctant to leave their estates for military campaigns, their weapons and military training lagged behind the advanced European armies. There was a fierce struggle for power between the old, well-born boyars and the nobles serving people. There were continuous uprisings of peasants and urban lower classes in the country, who fought both against the nobles and against the boyars, since they were all feudal serfs. Russia attracted the greedy eyes of neighboring states - Sweden, the Commonwealth, which were not averse to seizing and subjugating Russian lands. It was necessary to reorganize the army, build a navy, take possession of the sea coast, create a domestic industry, and rebuild the system of government. To radically break the old way of life, Russia needed an intelligent and talented leader, an outstanding person. This is how Peter I turned out to be. Peter not only comprehended the dictates of the time, but also gave all his outstanding talent, the obsessed stubbornness, the patience inherent in a Russian person and the ability to give the case a state scale to serve this decree. Peter imperiously invaded all spheres of the life of the country and greatly accelerated the development of the principles inherited.

The history of Russia before Peter the Great and after him knew many reforms. The main difference between the Petrovsky reforms and the reforms of the previous and subsequent times was that the Petrovsky ones were comprehensive in nature, covering all aspects of the life of the people, while others introduced innovations that concerned only certain areas of the life of society and the state. We, the people of the late 20th century, do not we can fully appreciate the explosive effect of the Petrine reforms in Russia. People of the past, the 19th century, perceived them sharper, deeper. Here is what a contemporary of A.S. wrote about the significance of Peter. Pushkin, historian M.N. Pogodin in 1841, that is, almost a century and a half after the great reforms of the first quarter of the 18th century: “In the hands of (Peter) the ends of all our threads are connected in one knot. a figure that casts a long shadow over our entire past and even obscures ancient history for us, which at the present moment still seems to hold its hand over us, and which, it seems, we will never lose sight of, no matter how far we go. we're into the future."

Created in Russia by Peter, the generation of M.N. Pogodin, and next generations. For example, the last recruitment took place in 1874, that is, 170 years after the first (1705). The Senate lasted from 1711 to December 1917, that is, 206 years; the synodal structure of the Orthodox Church remained unchanged from 1721 to 1918, that is, for 197 years, the poll tax system was abolished only in 1887, that is, 163 years after its introduction in 1724. In other words, in the history of Russia we we will find few institutions consciously created by man that would last so long, having such a strong impact on all aspects of social life. Moreover, some principles and stereotypes of political consciousness, developed or finally fixed under Peter, are still alive, sometimes in new verbal clothes they exist as traditional elements of our thinking and social behavior.

1. Historical conditions and prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I

The country was on the eve of great transformations. What were the prerequisites for Peter's reforms?

Russia was a backward country. This backwardness was a serious danger to the independence of the Russian people.

Industry in its structure was serf-owning, and in terms of output it was significantly inferior to the industry of Western European countries.

The Russian army for the most part consisted of a backward noble militia and archers, poorly armed and trained. The complex and clumsy ordering state apparatus, headed by the boyar aristocracy, did not meet the needs of the country. Rus' also lagged behind in the field of spiritual culture. Enlightenment hardly penetrated the masses of the people, and even in the ruling circles there were many uneducated and completely illiterate people.

Russia of the 17th century, by the very course of historical development, was faced with the need for fundamental reforms, since only in this way could it secure a worthy place among the states of the West and East. It should be noted that by this time in the history of our country there had already been significant changes in its development. The first industrial enterprises of the manufactory type arose, handicrafts and crafts grew, trade in agricultural products developed. The social and geographical division of labor - the basis of the established and developing all-Russian market - was constantly growing. The city was separated from the village. Trade and agricultural areas were distinguished. Domestic and foreign trade developed. In the second half of the 17th century, the nature of the state system in Rus' began to change, and absolutism began to take shape more and more clearly. Russian culture and sciences were further developed: mathematics and mechanics, physics and chemistry, geography and botany, astronomy and "mining". Cossack explorers discovered a number of new lands in Siberia.

The 17th century was the time when Russia established constant communication with Western Europe, established closer trade and diplomatic ties with it, used its technology and science, perceived its culture and enlightenment. By learning and borrowing, Russia developed independently, taking only what it needed, and only when it was needed. It was a time of accumulation of the forces of the Russian people, which made it possible to carry out the grandiose reforms of Peter the Great prepared by the very course of Russia's historical development.

The reforms of Peter was prepared by the entire previous history of the people, "required by the people." Already before Peter the Great, a fairly cohesive program of transformation had been outlined, which in many respects coincided with Peter's reforms, and in other ways went even further than them. Preparations were being made for a transformation in general, which, in the peaceful course of affairs, could stretch over a number of generations. The reform, as it was carried out by Peter, was his personal affair, an unparalleledly violent affair, and yet involuntary and necessary. The external dangers of the state outstripped the natural growth of the people, who had become stagnant in their development. The renewal of Russia could not be left to the quiet, gradual work of time, not forced by force. The reforms affected literally all aspects of the life of the Russian state and the Russian people. It should be noted that the main driving force behind Peter's reforms was the war.

2. Military reforms

Military reforms occupy a special place among the Petrine reforms. The essence of the military reform was the elimination of the noble militias and the organization of a combat-ready standing army with a uniform structure, weapons, uniforms, discipline, charters.

The tasks of creating a modern, efficient army and navy occupied the young king even before he became a sovereign sovereign. It is possible to count only a few (according to different historians - in different ways) peaceful years during the 36-year reign of Peter. The army and navy have always been the main concern of the emperor. However, military reforms are important not only in themselves, but also because they had a very large, often decisive, impact on other aspects of the life of the state. The course of the military reform itself was determined by the war.

"Playing with soldiers", to which young Peter devoted all his time, from the end of the 1680s. becomes more and more serious. In 1689 Peter builds on Lake Pleshcheyevo, near Pereslavl-Zalessky, several small ships under the guidance of Dutch masters. In the spring of 1690, the famous "amusing regiments" - Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky - were created. Peter begins to conduct real military maneuvers, the "capital city of Preshburg" is being built on the Yauza.

The Semyonovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments became the core of the future permanent (regular) army and proved themselves during the Azov campaigns of 1695-1696. Peter I pays great attention to the fleet, the first baptism of fire of which also falls at this time. The treasury did not have the necessary funds, and the construction of the fleet was entrusted to the so-called "kumpans" (companies) - associations of secular and spiritual landowners. With the outbreak of the Northern War, the focus shifts to the Baltic, and with the founding of St. Petersburg, shipbuilding is carried out almost exclusively there. By the end of Peter's reign, Russia became one of the strongest maritime powers in the world, having 48 linear and 788 galley and other ships.

The beginning of the Northern War was the impetus for the final creation of a regular army. Before Peter the Great, the army consisted of two main parts - the noble militia and various semi-regular formations (archers, Cossacks, regiments of a foreign system). The cardinal change was that Peter introduced a new principle of manning the army - periodic convocations of the militia were replaced by systematic recruiting sets. The basis of the recruiting system was based on the estate-serf principle. Recruitment kits were extended to the population that paid taxes and carried state duties. In 1699, the first recruitment was made, since 1705, the sets were legalized by the relevant decree and became annual. From 20 yards they took one person, a single person aged 15 to 20 years (however, during the Northern War, these terms were constantly changing due to a shortage of soldiers and sailors). The Russian village suffered most of all from recruiting sets. The service life of a recruit was practically unlimited. The officers of the Russian army were replenished at the expense of the nobles who studied in the guards noble regiments or in specially organized schools (Pushkar, artillery, navigation, fortification, Naval Academy, etc.). In 1716, the Military Charter was adopted, and in 1720 - the Naval Charter, a large-scale rearmament of the army was carried out. By the end of the Northern War, Peter had a huge strong army - 200 thousand people (not counting 100 thousand Cossacks), which allowed Russia to win a grueling war that stretched for almost a quarter of a century.

The main results of the military reforms of Peter the Great are as follows:

the creation of a combat-ready regular army, one of the strongest in the world, which gave Russia the opportunity to fight and defeat its main opponents;

the emergence of a galaxy of talented commanders (Alexander Menshikov, Boris Sheremetev, Fyodor Apraksin, Yakov Bruce, etc.);

the creation of a powerful navy;

a gigantic increase in military expenditures and covering them through the most severe squeezing of funds from the people.

3. Public administration reform

In the first quarter of the XVIII century. the transition to absolutism was accelerated by the Northern War and was completed. It was during the reign of Peter the Great that the regular army and the bureaucratic apparatus of state administration were created, and both the actual and legal formalization of absolutism took place.

An absolute monarchy is characterized by the highest degree of centralization, a developed bureaucracy completely dependent on the monarch, and a strong regular army. These signs were also inherent in Russian absolutism.

The army, in addition to its main internal function of suppressing popular unrest and uprisings, also performed other functions. Since the time of Peter the Great, it has been widely used in public administration as a coercive force. The practice of sending military teams to the places to compel the administration to better carry out government orders and instructions has become widespread. But sometimes the central institutions were put in the same position, for example, even the activities of the Senate in the first years of its creation were under the control of guards officers. Officers and soldiers were also involved in the census, collecting taxes and arrears. Along with the army, to suppress its political opponents, absolutism also used punitive bodies specially created for this purpose - the Preobrazhensky order, the Secret Chancellery.

In the first quarter of the XVIII century. there is also a second pillar of the absolute monarchy - the bureaucratic apparatus of state administration.

The central authorities inherited from the past (Boyar Duma, orders) are liquidated, a new system of state institutions appears.

The peculiarity of Russian absolutism was that it coincided with the development of serfdom, while in most European countries absolute monarchy took shape in the conditions of the development of capitalist relations and the abolition of serfdom.

The old form of government: the tsar with the Boyar Duma - orders - local administration in the districts, did not meet the new tasks either in providing military needs with material resources or in collecting monetary taxes from the population. Orders often duplicated each other's functions, creating confusion in management and slowness in decision-making. The uyezds varied in size, from dwarf uyezds to giant uyezds, which made it impossible to use their administration effectively to levy taxes. The Boyar Duma, with its traditions of unhurried discussion of affairs, representation of the noble nobility, not always competent in state affairs, also did not meet the requirements of Peter.

The establishment of an absolute monarchy in Russia was accompanied by a wide expansion of the state, its intrusion into all spheres of public, corporate and private life. Peter I pursued a policy of further enslavement of the peasants, which took the most severe form at the end of the 18th century. Finally, the strengthening of the role of the state was manifested in a detailed, thorough regulation of the rights and obligations of individual estates and social groups. Along with this, there was a legal consolidation of the ruling class, from different feudal strata, the estate of the nobility was formed.

The state, which was formed at the beginning of the 18th century, is called a police state, not only because it was during this period that a professional police was created, but also because the state sought to interfere in all aspects of life, regulating them.

The transfer of the capital to St. Petersburg also contributed to administrative changes. The king wanted to have at hand the necessary levers of control, which he often created anew, guided by momentary needs. As in all his other undertakings, during the reform of state power, Peter did not take into account Russian traditions and widely transferred to Russian soil the structures and methods of management known to him from Western European voyages. Lacking a clear plan for administrative reforms, the tsar probably still represented the desired image of the state apparatus. This is a strictly centralized and bureaucratic apparatus, clearly and quickly executing the decrees of the sovereign, within its competence, showing a reasonable initiative. This is something very similar to an army, where each officer, executing the general order of the commander in chief, independently solves his private and specific tasks. As we will see, the Petrine state machine was far from such an ideal, which was seen only as a trend, although clearly expressed.

In the first quarter of the XVIII century. a whole range of reforms was carried out related to the restructuring of central and local authorities and administration, areas of culture and life, and a radical reorganization of the armed forces is taking place. Almost all of these changes took place during the reign of Peter I and were of great progressive significance.

Consider the reforms of the highest authorities and administration that took place in the first quarter of the 18th century, which are usually divided into three stages:

Stage I - 1699 - 1710 - partial transformations;

Stage II - 1710 - 1719 - the liquidation of the former central authorities and administration, the creation of the Senate, the emergence of a new capital;

Stage III - 1719 - 1725 - the formation of new bodies of sectoral administration, the implementation of the second regional reform, the reform of church administration and financial and tax.

3.1. Central government reform

The last mention of the last meeting of the Boyar Duma dates back to 1704. The Near Office, which arose in 1699 (an institution that exercised administrative and financial control in the state), acquired paramount importance. The real power was held by the Council of Ministers, which sat in the building of the Near Chancellery - the council of heads of the most important departments under the tsar, which managed orders and offices, provided the army and navy with everything necessary, was in charge of finances and construction (after the formation of the Senate, the Near Chancellery (1719) and the Council of Ministers (1711) cease its existence).

The next step in the reform of the central authorities was the creation of the Senate. The formal reason was the departure of Peter to the war with Turkey. On February 22, 1711, Peter personally wrote a decree on the composition of the Senate, which began with the phrase: "Determined to be for Our absences the Governing Senate to govern." The content of this phrase has given rise to historians still arguing about what kind of institution the Senate seemed to Peter: temporary or permanent. On March 2, 1711, the tsar issued several decrees: on the competence of the Senate and justice, on the organization of state revenues, trade and other branches of the state economy. The Senate was instructed:

"To have a court that is not hypocritical, and to punish unjust judges with the deprivation of honor and all property, then let it be followed by the tell-tales";

"Look throughout the state of expenses, and leave unnecessary, and especially vain";

"Money, how possible, to collect, because money is the artery of war."

The members of the Senate were appointed by the king. Initially, it consisted of only nine people who decided matters collectively. The staffing of the Senate was based not on the principle of nobility, but on competence, length of service and closeness to the tsar.

From 1718 to 1722 The Senate became an assembly of presidents of the colleges. In 1722 it was reformed by three decrees of the emperor. The composition has been changed, including both the presidents of the colleges and senators, alien to the colleges. The Decree "On the Position of the Senate" gave the Senate the right to issue its own decrees.

The range of issues that were in his charge was quite wide: issues of justice, treasury expenses and taxes, trade, control over the administration of various levels. Immediately, the newly created institution received an office with numerous departments - "tables" where clerks worked. The reform of 1722 turned the Senate into the highest body of central government, which stood above the entire state apparatus.

The originality of the era of Peter's reforms consisted in strengthening the organs and means of state control. And to oversee the activities of the administration under the Senate, the position of chief fiscal was established, to which the provincial fiscals should be subordinate (1711). Insufficient reliability of the fiscal system led, in turn, to the emergence in 1715 under the Senate of the post of auditor general, or overseer of decrees. The main task of the auditor is "so that everything is done." In 1720, stronger pressure was placed on the Senate: it was ordered to watch that "everything was done decently, and there was no vain talk, shouting and other things." When this did not help, after a year of duty and the Attorney General and
the chief secretary was assigned to the military: one of the army headquarters officers was on duty in the Senate every month to monitor order, and "whoever from the senators scolded or acted impolitely, the officer on duty arrested him and took him to the fortress, letting the sovereign know, of course."

Finally, in 1722, these functions were assigned to a specially appointed prosecutor general, who "had to watch firmly that the Senate, in his rank, act righteously and without hypocrisy," have supervision over prosecutors and fiscals, and in general be "the sovereign's eye" and "solicitor in business state".

Thus, the reformer tsar was forced to constantly expand the special system of organized distrust and denunciation he had created, supplementing the existing control bodies with new ones.

However, the creation of the Senate could not complete the management reforms, since there was no intermediate link between the Senate and the provinces, many orders continued to operate. In 1717 - 1722. to replace 44 orders of the end of the 17th century. colleges came. Unlike orders, the collegiate system (1717-1719) provided for the systematic division of the administration into a certain number of departments, which in itself created a higher level of centralization.

The Senate appointed presidents and vice presidents, determined states and procedures. In addition to the leaders, the boards included four advisers, four assessors (assessors), a secretary, an actuary, a registrar, a translator and clerks. Special decrees were ordered from 1720 to begin the proceedings in a new order.

In 1721, the Estate Board was created, replacing the Local Order, which was in charge of the noble land ownership. On the rights of colleges were the Chief Magistrate, who ruled the city estate, and the Holy Governing Synod. His appearance testified to the elimination of the autonomy of the church.

In 1699, in order to improve the flow of direct taxes to the treasury, the Burmister Chamber, or Town Hall, was established. By 1708, it had become the central treasury, replacing the Great Treasury Order. It included twelve old financial orders. In 1722, the Manufactory College was separated from the unified Berg Manufactory College, which, in addition to the functions of managing industry, was entrusted with the tasks of economic policy and financing. The Berg Collegium retained the functions of mining and coinage.

In contrast to orders that acted on the basis of custom and precedent, collegiums had to be guided by clear legal norms and job descriptions. The most general legislative act in this area was the General Regulations (1720), which was a charter for the activities of state collegiums, offices and offices and determined the composition of their members, competence, functions, and procedures. The subsequent development of the principle of bureaucratic, bureaucratic length of service was reflected in Peter's "Table of Ranks" (1722). The new law divided the service into civil and military. It defined 14 classes, or ranks, of officials. Anyone who received the rank of 8th class became a hereditary nobleman. The ranks from the 14th to the 9th also gave the nobility, but only personal.

The adoption of the "Table of Ranks" testified that the bureaucratic principle in the formation of the state apparatus undoubtedly defeated the aristocratic principle. Professional qualities, personal devotion and length of service become decisive for promotion. A sign of bureaucracy as a management system is the inclusion of each official in a clear hierarchical power structure (vertically) and his guidance in his activities by strict and precise prescriptions of the law, regulations, instructions. The positive features of the new bureaucratic apparatus were professionalism, specialization, normativity, while the negative features were its complexity, high cost, self-employment, and inflexibility.

3.2. Local government reform

At the beginning of his reign, Peter I tried to use the former system of local government, gradually introducing elected elements of government instead of zemstvo ones. So, the decree of March 10, 1702 prescribed participation in the administration with the main traditional administrators (voivodes) of elected representatives of the nobility. In 1705, this order became mandatory and universal, which was supposed to strengthen control over the old administration.

December 18, 1708 was issued a decree "On the establishment of the provinces and the painting of cities to them." It was a reform that completely changed the system of local government. The main goal of this reform was to provide the army with everything necessary: with the regiments of the army, distributed among the provinces, a direct connection was established between the provinces through a specially created institute of krieg commissars. According to this decree, the entire territory of the country was divided into eight provinces:

Moscow included 39 cities,

Ingrian (later St. Petersburg) - 29 cities (two more cities of this province - Yamburg and Koporye were given into the possession of Prince Menshikov),

56 cities were assigned to the Kyiv province,

To Smolensk - 17 cities,

To Arkhangelsk (later Arkhangelsk) - 20 cities,

To Kazanskaya - 71 urban and rural settlements,

In addition to 52 cities, 25 cities assigned to ship affairs were assigned to the Azov province

26 cities were assigned to the Siberian province, "and 4 suburbs to Vyatka".

In 1711, a group of cities in the Azov province, assigned to ship affairs in Voronezh, became the Voronezh province. There were 9 provinces. In 1713-1714. The number of provinces increased to 11.

Thus began the reform of the regional administration. In its final form, it was formed only by 1719, on the eve of the second regional reform.

According to the second reform, eleven provinces were divided into 45 provinces, at the head of which were placed governors, vice-governors or voivodes. The provinces were divided into districts - districts. The administration of the provinces reported directly to the colleges. Four collegiums (Cameras, State Office, Justice and Votchinnaya) had their own apparatus in the field of chamberists, commandants and treasurers. In 1713, a collegiate principle was introduced into the regional administration: colleges of landrats were established under the governors (from 8 to 12 people per province), elected by the local nobility.

The regional reform, while responding to the most pressing needs of autocratic power, was at the same time a consequence of the development of a bureaucratic trend, already characteristic of the previous period. It was with the help of strengthening the bureaucratic element in the government that Peter intended to solve all state issues. The reform led not only to the concentration of financial and administrative powers in the hands of a few governors - representatives of the central government, but also to the creation of an extensive hierarchical network of bureaucratic institutions with a large staff of officials on the ground. The former "order-county" system was doubled: "order (or office) - province - province - county".

The governor had four direct subordinates:

chief commandant - was responsible for military affairs;

chief commissar - for fees;

Ober-praviantmeister - for grain fees;

landrichter - for court cases.

The province was usually headed by a voivode, in the county the financial and police administration was entrusted to the zemstvo commissars, partly elected by the county nobles, partly appointed from above.

Some of the functions of orders (especially territorial orders) were transferred to the governors, their number was reduced.

The decree on the establishment of provinces completed the first stage of the reform of local government. Provincial administration was carried out by governors and vice-governors, who performed mainly military and financial management functions. However, this division turned out to be too large and did not allow the management of the provinces to be carried out in practice, especially with the communications that existed at that time. Therefore, in each province there were large cities in which the former city administration exercised control.

3.3. City government reform

Around the newly formed industrial enterprises, manufactories, mines, mines and shipyards, new urban-type settlements appeared, in which self-government bodies began to form. Already in 1699, Peter I, wishing to provide the urban estate with complete self-government in the style of the West, ordered the establishment of a burmister chamber. Self-government bodies began to form in the cities: town councils, magistrates. The urban estate began to take shape legally. In 1720, the Chief Magistrate was established in St. Petersburg, who was instructed to "be in charge of all the urban class in Russia."

According to the regulations of the Chief Magistrate in 1721, it began to be divided into regular citizens and "mean" people. Regular citizens, in turn, were divided into two guilds:

The first guild - bankers, merchants, doctors, pharmacists, skippers of merchant ships, painters, icon painters and silversmiths.

The second guild - artisans, carpenters, tailors, shoemakers, small traders.

Guilds were controlled by guild meetings and foremen. The lowest stratum of the urban population ("those who are hired, in menial jobs, and the like") chose their elders and tenths, who could report to the magistrate about their needs and ask them for satisfaction.

According to the European model, guild organizations were created, which included masters, apprentices and apprentices, led by foremen. All other townspeople were not included in the guild and were subject to a general check in order to identify fugitive peasants among them and return them to their former places of residence.

The division into guilds turned out to be the purest formality, since the military auditors who carried it out, primarily concerned about increasing the number of poll tax payers, arbitrarily included in the members of the guilds and persons not related to them. The emergence of guilds and guilds meant that the corporate principles were opposed to the feudal principles of economic organization.

3.4. Results of public administration reform

As a result of Peter's reforms, by the end of the first quarter
18th century the following system of authorities and administration was formed.

All the fullness of legislative, executive, and judicial power was concentrated in the hands of Peter, who, after the end of the Northern War, received the title of emperor. In 1711 A new supreme body of executive and judicial power was created - the Senate, which also had significant legislative functions. It was fundamentally different from its predecessor, the Boyar Duma.

Council members were appointed by the emperor. In the exercise of executive power, the Senate issued decrees that had the force of law. In 1722, the Prosecutor General was placed at the head of the Senate, who was entrusted with control over the activities of all government agencies. The Prosecutor General was supposed to perform the functions of "the eye of the state." He exercised this control through prosecutors appointed to all government offices. In the first quarter of the XVIII century. the system of prosecutors was added to the system of fiscals, headed by the chief fiscal. The duties of the fiscals included reporting on all abuses of institutions and officials that violated the "public interest".

The order system that had developed under the Boyar Duma did not correspond in any way to the new conditions and tasks. The orders that arose at different times differed greatly in their nature and functions. Orders and decrees of orders often contradicted each other, creating unimaginable confusion and delaying the resolution of urgent issues for a long time.

Instead of the outdated system of orders in 1717 - 1718. 12 boards were created.

The creation of a system of colleges completed the process of centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus. A clear distribution of departmental functions, delimitation of the spheres of state administration and competence, uniform norms of activity, concentration of financial management in a single institution - all this significantly distinguished the new apparatus from the order system.

Foreign lawyers were involved in the development of regulations, and the experience of state institutions in Sweden and Denmark was taken into account.

The subsequent development of the principle of bureaucratic, bureaucratic length of service was reflected in Peter's "Table of Ranks" (1722).

The training of personnel for the new state apparatus began to be carried out in special schools and academies in Russia and abroad. The degree of qualification was determined not only by rank, but also by education and special training.

In 1708 - 1709. restructuring of local authorities and administrations began. The country was divided into 8 provinces, differing in territory and population. At the head of the province was a governor appointed by the tsar, who concentrated executive and judicial power in his hands. Under the governor there was a provincial office. But the situation was complicated by the fact that the governor was subordinate not only to the emperor and the Senate, but also to all colleges, whose orders and decrees often contradicted each other.

The provinces in 1719 were divided into provinces, the number of which was 50. At the head of the province was a governor with an office attached to him. The provinces, in turn, were divided into districts (counties) with a voivode and a county office. Some time during the reign of Peter the county administration was replaced by an elected zemstvo commissar from local nobles or retired officers. Its functions were limited to collecting the poll tax, monitoring the performance of state duties, and detaining fugitive peasants. The zemstvo commissar of the provincial office was subordinate. In 1713, the local nobility was given the choice of 8-12 landrats (advisers from the nobles of the county) to help the governor, and after the introduction of the poll tax, regimental districts were created. The military units stationed in them observed the collection of taxes and suppressed manifestations of discontent and anti-feudal actions.

As a result of administrative reforms in Russia, the formation of an absolute monarchy was completed. The king got the opportunity to unlimitedly and uncontrollably govern the country with the help of officials completely dependent on him. The unlimited power of the monarch found legislative expression in the 20th article of the Military Regulations and the Spiritual Regulations: the power of monarchs is autocratic, which God himself commands to obey.

The external expression of the absolutism established in Russia is the adoption
in 1721 by Peter I the title of emperor and the title "Great".

The most important features of absolutism include the bureaucratization of the administrative apparatus and its centralization. The new state machine as a whole worked much more efficiently than the old one. But it was planted with a "time bomb" - domestic bureaucracy. E.V. Anisimov in the book "The Time of Peter the Great" writes: "The bureaucracy is a necessary element of the structure of the state of the new time. However, in the conditions of the Russian autocracy, when the monarch's will is not limited by anything and no one is the only source of law, when the official is not responsible to anyone except his boss , the creation of the bureaucratic machine became a kind of "bureaucratic revolution", during which the perpetual motion machine of the bureaucracy was launched.

The reforms of central and local government created an outwardly orderly hierarchy of institutions from the Senate in the center to the voivodship office in the counties.

4. Reform of the estate device

4.1. Service class

The fight against the Swedes required the organization of a regular army, and Peter gradually transferred all the nobles and service people to the regular service. The service for all service people became the same, they served without exception, indefinitely and began their service from the lower ranks.

All the former categories of service people were united together, into one estate - the gentry. All the lower ranks (both noble and from the "common people") could equally rise to the highest ranks. The order of such length of service was precisely determined by the "Table of Ranks" (1722). In the "Table" all the ranks were divided into 14 ranks or "ranks" according to their seniority. Anyone who reached the lowest rank 14 could hope for the highest position and take the highest rank. The "Table of Ranks" replaced the principle of generosity with the principle of length of service and serviceability. But Peter made one concession to people from the upper old nobility. He allowed noble youth to enter predominantly in his favorite guards regiments Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky.

Peter demanded that the nobles must learn to read and write and mathematics, and deprived the untrained nobles of the right to marry and receive an officer's rank. Peter limited the landowning rights of the nobles. He stopped giving them estates from the treasury when they entered the service, but provided them with a monetary salary. Noble patrimonies and estates forbade splitting when transferred to sons (the law "On Majorate", 1714). Peter's measures regarding the nobility aggravated the position of this estate, but did not change its attitude towards the state. The nobility both before and now had to pay for the right to land ownership by service. But now the service has become harder, and land ownership more constrained. The nobility grumbled and tried to alleviate their hardships. Peter severely punished attempts to evade service.

4.2. Urban estate (townspeople and city people)

Before Peter, the urban estate was a very small and poor class. Peter wanted to create an economically strong and active urban class in Russia, similar to what he saw in Western Europe. Peter expanded the city self-government. In 1720, the chief magistrate was created, who was supposed to take care of the urban estate. All cities were divided according to the number of inhabitants into classes. Residents of cities were divided into "regular" and "irregular" ("mean") citizens. Regular citizens made up two "guilds": the first included representatives of the capital and the intelligentsia, the second - small merchants and artisans. Craftsmen were divided into "workshops" according to crafts. Irregular people or "mean" were called laborers. The city was governed by a magistrate of burgomasters, elected by all regular citizens. In addition, city affairs were discussed at town meetings or councils of regular citizens. Each city was subordinated to the main magistrate, bypassing any other local authorities.

Despite all the transformations, Russian cities have remained in the same miserable situation as they were before. The reason for this is the far from the commercial and industrial system of Russian life and difficult wars.

4.3. Peasantry

In the first quarter of the century, it became clear that the household principle of taxation did not bring the expected increase in the receipt of taxes.

In order to increase their incomes, the landowners settled several peasant families in one yard. As a result, during the census in 1710, it turned out that the number of households had decreased by 20% since 1678. Therefore, a new principle of taxation was introduced. In 1718 - 1724. a census of the entire taxable male population is carried out, regardless of age and ability to work. All persons included in these lists ("revision tales") had to pay a poll tax. In the event of the death of the recorded person, the tax continued to be paid until the next revision, the family of the deceased or the community in which he was a member. In addition, all tax-paying estates, with the exception of the landlord peasants, paid the state 40 kopecks of quitrent, which was supposed to balance their duties with those of the landlord peasants.

The transition to per capita taxation increased the figure of direct taxes from 1.8 to 4.6 million, accounting for more than half of the budget receipts (8.5 million). The tax was extended to a number of categories of the population that had not paid it before: serfs, "walking people", single-palace residents, the black-haired peasantry of the North and Siberia, the non-Russian peoples of the Volga region, the Urals, and others. All these categories constituted the estate of state peasants, and the poll tax for them it was a feudal rent that they paid to the state.

The introduction of the poll tax increased the power of the landlords over the peasants, since the submission of revision tales and the collection of taxes were entrusted to the landowners.

Finally, in addition to the poll tax, the peasant paid a huge amount of various taxes and fees designed to replenish the treasury, which was empty as a result of wars, the creation of a cumbersome and expensive apparatus of power and administration, the regular army and navy, the construction of the capital and other expenses. In addition, the state peasants carried duties: road - for the construction and maintenance of roads, pit - for the transportation of mail, government cargo and officials, etc.

5. Church reform

An important role in the establishment of absolutism was played by the church reform of Peter I. In the second half of the 17th century. the positions of the Russian Orthodox Church were very strong, it retained administrative, financial and judicial autonomy in relation to the royal power. The last patriarchs Joachim (1675-1690) and Adrian (1690-1700) pursued a policy aimed at strengthening these positions.

Peter's church policy, as well as his policy in other areas of public life, was aimed, first of all, at the most efficient use of the church for the needs of the state, and more specifically, at squeezing money from the church for state programs, primarily for the construction of the fleet. After Peter's journey as part of the Great Embassy, he is also occupied with the problem of the complete subordination of the church to his authority.

The turn to the new policy took place after the death of Patriarch Hadrian. Peter orders to conduct an audit for the census of the property of the Patriarchal House. Taking advantage of the information about the revealed abuses, Peter cancels the election of a new patriarch, at the same time entrusting Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan with the post of "locum tenens of the patriarchal throne." In 1701, the Monastic order was formed - a secular institution - to manage the affairs of the church. The church begins to lose its independence from the state, the right to dispose of its property.

Peter, guided by the enlightening idea of the public good, which requires the productive work of all members of society, launches an offensive against monks and monasteries. In 1701, the royal decree limited the number of monks: now one had to apply to the Monastic order for permission to be tonsured. Subsequently, the king had the idea to use the monasteries as shelters for retired soldiers and beggars. In the decree of 1724, the number of monks in the monastery is directly dependent on the number of people they look after.

The existing relationship between the church and the authorities required a new legal formalization. In 1721, Feofan Prokopovich, a prominent figure in the Petrine era, drafted the Spiritual Regulations, which provided for the destruction of the institution of the patriarchate and the formation of a new body - the Spiritual College, which was soon renamed the "Holy Government Synod", officially equalized in rights with the Senate. Stefan Yavorsky became president, Feodosy Yanovsky and Feofan Prokopovich became vice-presidents. The creation of the Synod was the beginning of the absolutist period of Russian history, since now all power, including church power, was concentrated in the hands of Peter. A contemporary reports that when Russian church leaders tried to protest, Peter pointed them to the Spiritual Regulations and said: "Here's a spiritual patriarch for you, and if you don't like him, then here's a damask patriarch (throwing a dagger on the table)."

The adoption of the Spiritual Regulations actually turned the Russian clergy into state officials, especially since a secular person, the chief prosecutor, was appointed to supervise the Synod.

The reform of the church was carried out in parallel with the tax reform, the registration and classification of priests were carried out, and their lower strata were transferred to the head salary. According to the consolidated statements of the Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod and Astrakhan provinces (formed as a result of the division of the Kazan province), only 3044 priests out of 8709 (35%) were exempt from tax. A stormy reaction among the priests was caused by the Resolution of the Synod of May 17, 1722, in which the clergy were charged with the obligation to violate the secrecy of confession if they had the opportunity to communicate any information important to the state.

As a result of the church reform, the church lost a huge part of its influence and turned into a part of the state apparatus, strictly controlled and managed by secular authorities.

6. Economic transformation

During the Petrine era, the Russian economy, and above all industry, made a giant leap. At the same time, the development of the economy in the first quarter of the XVIII century. followed the path outlined by the previous period. In the Muscovite state of the XVI XVII century. there were large industrial enterprises - Cannon Yard, Printing Yard, weapons factories in Tula, a shipyard in Dedinovo. The policy of Peter I in relation to economic life was characterized by a high degree of use of command and protectionist methods.

In agriculture, opportunities for improvement were drawn from the further development of fertile lands, the cultivation of industrial crops that provided raw materials for industry, the development of animal husbandry, the advancement of agriculture to the east and south, as well as the more intensive exploitation of the peasants. The increased needs of the state for raw materials for Russian industry led to the widespread use of crops such as flax and hemp. The decree of 1715 encouraged the cultivation of flax and hemp, as well as tobacco, mulberry trees for silkworms. The decree of 1712 ordered the creation of horse breeding farms in the Kazan, Azov and Kiev provinces, sheep breeding was also encouraged.

In the Petrine era, the country was sharply divided into two zones of feudal economy - the lean North, where the feudal lords transferred their peasants to quitrent, often letting them go to the city and other agricultural areas to earn money, and the fertile South, where the noble landowners sought to expand corvee.

The state duties of the peasants also increased. They built cities (40 thousand peasants worked on the construction of St. Petersburg), manufactories, bridges, roads; annual recruiting was carried out, old fees were increased and new ones were introduced. The main goal of Peter's policy all the time was to obtain the largest possible financial and human resources for state needs.

Two censuses were carried out - in 1710 and 1718. According to the census of 1718, the male "soul" became the unit of taxation, regardless of age, from which the poll tax was levied in the amount of 70 kopecks per year (from state peasants - 1 rub. 10 kopecks per year). This streamlined the tax policy and sharply raised state revenues (by about 4 times; by the end of Peter's reign, they amounted to 12 million rubles a year).

In industry, there was a sharp reorientation from small peasant and handicraft farms to manufactories. Under Peter, at least 200 new manufactories were founded, he encouraged their creation in every possible way. The policy of the state was also aimed at protecting the young Russian industry from competition from Western Europe by introducing very high customs duties (Customs Charter of 1724)

Russian manufactory, although it had capitalist features, but the use of predominantly the labor of peasants - possession, ascribed, quitrent, etc. - made it a serf enterprise. Depending on whose property they were, manufactories were divided into state, merchant and landowner. In 1721, industrialists were granted the right to buy peasants in order to secure them to the enterprise.

State state-owned factories used the labor of state peasants, bonded peasants, recruits and free hired craftsmen. They mainly served heavy industry - metallurgy, shipyards, mines. The merchant manufactories, which produced mainly consumer goods, employed both sessional and quitrent peasants, as well as civilian labor. Landlord enterprises were fully provided by the forces of the serfs of the landowner.

Peter's protectionist policy led to the emergence of manufactories in various industries, often appearing in Russia for the first time. The main ones were those who worked for the army and navy: metallurgical, weapons, shipbuilding, cloth, linen, leather, etc. Entrepreneurial activity was encouraged, favorable conditions were created for people who created new manufactories or rented state ones.

There are manufactories in many industries - glass, gunpowder, paper, canvas, linen, silk weaving, cloth, leather, rope, hat, colorful, sawmill and many others. A huge contribution to the development of the metallurgical industry of the Urals was made by Nikita Demidov, who enjoyed the special favor of the king. The emergence of the foundry industry in Karelia on the basis of the Ural ores, the construction of the Vyshnevolotsk Canal, contributed to the development of metallurgy in new areas and brought Russia to one of the first places in the world in this industry.

By the end of the reign of Peter in Russia there was a developed diversified industry with centers in St. Petersburg, Moscow, and the Urals. The largest enterprises were the Admiralty shipyard, Arsenal, St. Petersburg powder factories, metallurgical plants of the Urals, Khamovny yard in Moscow. There was a strengthening of the all-Russian market, the accumulation of capital thanks to the mercantilist policy of the state. Russia supplied competitive goods to world markets: iron, linen, yuft, potash, furs, caviar.

Thousands of Russians were trained in Europe in various specialties, and, in turn, foreigners - weapons engineers, metallurgists, locksmiths were hired into the Russian service. Thanks to this, Russia was enriched with the most advanced technologies in Europe.

As a result of Peter's policy in the economic field, a powerful industry was created in an extremely short period of time, capable of fully meeting military and state needs and not dependent on imports in anything.

7. Reforms in the field of culture and life

Important changes in the life of the country strongly demanded the training of qualified personnel. The scholastic school, which was in the hands of the church, could not provide this. Secular schools began to open, education began to acquire a secular character. This required the creation of new textbooks to replace the church textbooks.

In 1708, Peter I introduced a new civil script, which replaced the old Cyrillic semi-character. For the printing of secular educational, scientific, political literature and legislative acts, new printing houses were created in Moscow and St. Petersburg.

The development of printing was accompanied by the beginning of an organized book trade, as well as the creation and development of a network of libraries. In 1703, the first issue of the Vedomosti newspaper, the first Russian newspaper, was published in Moscow.

The most important stage in the implementation of the reforms was Peter's visit to a number of European countries as part of the Great Embassy. Upon his return, Peter sent many young nobles to Europe to study various specialties, mainly to master the marine sciences. The tsar also took care of the development of education in Russia. In 1701, in Moscow, in the Sukharev Tower, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was opened, headed by the Scotsman Forvarson, professor at the University of Aberdeen. One of the teachers of this school was Leonty Magnitsky - the author of "Arithmetic ...". In 1711 an engineering school appeared in Moscow.

The logical outcome of all the activities in the field of the development of science and education was the foundation in 1724 of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg.

Peter sought to overcome as soon as possible the disunity between Russia and Europe that had arisen since the time of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. One of its manifestations was a different chronology, and in 1700 Peter transferred Russia to a new calendar - the year 7208 becomes 1700, and the celebration of the New Year is transferred from September 1 to January 1.

The development of industry and trade was associated with the study and development of the territory and subsoil of the country, which was reflected in the organization of a number of large expeditions.

At this time, major technical innovations and inventions appeared, especially in the development of mining and metallurgy, as well as in the military field.

During this period, a number of important works on history were written, and the Kunstkamera created by Peter laid the foundation for collecting collections of historical and memorial objects and rarities, weapons, materials on the natural sciences, etc. At the same time, they began to collect ancient written sources, make copies of chronicles, letters, decrees and other acts. This was the beginning of the museum business in Russia.

From the first quarter of the 18th century the transition to urban planning and regular planning of cities was carried out. The appearance of the city began to be determined not by religious architecture, but by palaces and mansions, houses of government agencies and aristocracy. In painting, icon painting is replaced by a portrait. By the first quarter of the XVIII century. also include attempts to create a Russian theater, at the same time the first dramatic works were written.

Changes in everyday life affected the mass of the population. The old habitual long-sleeved clothes with long sleeves were forbidden and replaced with new ones. Camisoles, ties and frills, wide-brimmed hats, stockings, shoes, wigs quickly replaced old Russian clothes in the cities. Western European outerwear and dress among women spread the fastest. It was forbidden to wear a beard, which caused discontent, especially among the taxable classes. A special "beard tax" and a mandatory copper sign for its payment were introduced.

From 1718, Peter established assemblies with the obligatory presence of women, which reflected a serious change in their position in society. The establishment of the assemblies marked the beginning of the establishment among the Russian nobility of "rules of good manners" and "noble behavior in society", the use of a foreign, mainly French, language.

It should be noted that all these transformations came exclusively from above, and therefore were quite painful for both the upper and lower strata of society. The violent nature of some of these transformations inspired disgust and led to a sharp rejection of the rest, even the most progressive ones, undertakings. Peter aspired to make Russia a European country in every sense of the word and attached great importance to even the smallest details of the process.

The changes in everyday life and culture that took place in the first quarter of the 18th century were of great progressive significance. But they even more emphasized the allocation of the nobility to a privileged estate, turned the use of the benefits and achievements of culture into one of the noble class privileges, and was accompanied by the widespread gallomania, contemptuous attitude towards the Russian language and Russian culture among the nobility.

Conclusion

The main result of the totality of Peter's reforms was the establishment of an absolutist regime in Russia, the crowning achievement of which was the change in 1721 of the title of the Russian monarch - Peter declared himself emperor, and the country began to be called the Russian Empire. Thus, what Peter was going for all the years of his reign was formalized - the creation of a state with a coherent system of government, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy that had an impact on international politics. As a result of Peter's reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any means to achieve its goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal state structure - a warship, where everything and everything is subject to the will of one person - the captain, and managed to bring this ship out of the swamp into the stormy waters of the ocean, bypassing all the reefs and shoals.

Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, the central role in which belonged to the nobility. At the same time, Russia's backwardness was not completely overcome, and the reforms were carried out mainly through the most severe exploitation and coercion.

The complexity and inconsistency of Russia's development during this period also determined the inconsistency of Peter's activities and the reforms he carried out. On the one hand, they had great historical significance, since they contributed to the progress of the country and were aimed at eliminating its backwardness. On the other hand, they were carried out by the feudal lords, using feudal methods, and were aimed at strengthening their dominance. Therefore, the progressive transformations of the time of Peter the Great from the very beginning carried conservative features, which, in the course of the further development of the country, became stronger and could not ensure the elimination of socio-economic backwardness. As a result of Peter's reforms, Russia quickly caught up with those European countries where the dominance of feudal-serf relations was preserved, but it could not catch up with those countries that embarked on the capitalist path of development.

The transformative activity of Peter was distinguished by indomitable energy, unprecedented scope and purposefulness, courage in breaking obsolete institutions, laws, foundations and way of life and way of life.

The role of Peter the Great in the history of Russia can hardly be overestimated. No matter how one relates to the methods and style of carrying out transformations, one cannot but admit that Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in world history.

In conclusion, I would like to quote the words of a contemporary of Peter - Nartov: "... and although Peter the Great is no longer with us, his spirit lives in our souls, and we, who had the happiness of being with this monarch, will die faithful to him and our ardent love for the earthly Let us bury God with us. Without fear, we proclaim about our father in order that we learned noble fearlessness and truth from him.

Bibliography

1. Anisimov E.V. Time of Peter's reforms. - L .: Lenizdat, 1989.

2. Anisimov E.V., Kamensky A.B. Russia in the 18th - the first half of the 19th century: History. Historian. Document. - M.: MIROS, 1994.

3. Buganov V.I. Peter the Great and his time. - M.: Nauka, 1989.

4. History of public administration in Russia: Textbook for universities / Ed. prof. A.N. Markova. - M.: Law and Law, UNITI, 1997.

5. History of the USSR from ancient times to the end of the XVIII century. / Ed. B.A. Rybakova. - M.: Higher school, 1983.

6. Malkov V.V. A manual on the history of the USSR for applicants to universities. - M.: Higher school, 1985.

7. Pavlenko N.I. Peter the Great. - M.: Thought, 1990.

8. Soloviev S.M. On the history of the new Russia. - M.: Enlightenment, 1993.

9. Solovyov S.M. Readings and stories on the history of Russia. - M.: Pravda, 1989.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

KOMI REPUBLICAN ACADEMY OF STATE SERVICE

AND DEPARTMENT UNDER THE HEAD OF THE KOMI REPUBLIC

Faculty of State and Municipal Administration

Department of Public Administration and Public Service

Test

REFORMS OF PETER I.

RUSSIA IN THE FIRST QUARTER OF THE 18TH CENTURY

Executor:

Motorkin Andrey Yurievich,

group 112

Teacher:

Art. teacher I.I. Lastunov

Syktyvkar

Introduction 1

1. Historical conditions and prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I 3

2. Military reforms 4

3. Public administration reform 6

3.1. Central government reform 8

3.2. Local government reform 11

3.3. City government reform 13

3.4. Results of public administration reform 14

4. Reform of the estate structure 16

4.1. Service class 16

4.2. Urban estate (townspeople and city people) 17

4.3. Peasantry 17

5. Church Reform 18

6. Economic transformation 20

7. Reforms in the field of culture and life 22

Conclusion 24

References 26

Administrative reforms- a complex of organ transformations government controlled undertaken by Peter I the Great during his reign of the Russian kingdom and Russian Empire. Most of the administrative apparatus was either abolished or reorganized in accordance with European traditions, the experience of which the king learned during the Great Embassy of 1697-1698.

A complete list of reforms related to the administrative sphere can be found in the table below.

Administrative transformations of Peter I

Briefly about the essence and content of administrative reforms

The main essence of almost all the administrative transformations of Peter I was to build an absolutist form of monarchy, which involves the concentration of judicial, administrative and financial levers of control in the hands of the sovereign and the people entrusted to him.

Reasons for the reforms of the state apparatus

Peter I sought to build a rigid vertical of power. The creation of an absolutist monarchy was to prevent possible conspiracies, riots and stop the mass escapes of soldiers and peasants.
The outdated administrative system hampered economic development and was clumsy in solving emerging problems.
The Northern War with Sweden and plans to modernize the industry required financial and human resources - new administrative institutions were needed to organize the supply.

Goals and objectives
administrative reforms

Building a vertical of power at the central and local levels, each of whose members solves specific tasks and bears personal responsibility.
A clearer delimitation of the functions of the organs of the state apparatus.
Administrative-territorial transformations, contributing to the improvement of the supply of the army and navy with the necessary equipment, provisions, quartering.
Introduction of the principle of collegial decision-making, development of uniform rules for office work of the administrative apparatus.

Reforms of the central government of Peter I the Great

Creation of the Middle Office and the abolition of the Boyar Duma

With the advent of Peter I to power, the Boyar Duma began to lose its power, turning into another bureaucratic department. The tsar tried to change the established order (members of the boyar duma were elected from local noble nobles) and put people under his personal control in leadership positions. WITH 1701 its functions as the highest government body began to be performed by the so-called "Council of Ministers"- a council of heads of the most important government departments, among which there were many non-boyars. After 1704, there is no mention of meetings of the Borya Duma, although its official abolition did not take place.

close office, was created in 1699 to control the financial costs of all orders, as well as administrative decisions, all the most important papers were to be signed by the chief tsarist advisers and ministers, for which a special book of nominal decrees was opened.

Creation of the Governing Senate

March 2, 1711 Peter I created Governing Senate- the body of the highest legislative, judicial and administrative power, which was supposed to govern the country during the absence of the king (the Northern War occupied most of his attention). The Senate was completely controlled by the tsar, it was a collegiate body, whose members were personally appointed by Peter I. February 22, 1711 for additional supervision of officials during the absence of the king, a position was created fiscal.

Creation of Colleges

From 1718 to 1726 was created and further development Colleges, the purpose of which Peter I saw as replacing the outdated system of orders, which were excessively slow in solving the problems of the state and often duplicated their own functions. As they were created, the boards absorbed orders. In the period from 1718 to 1720, the presidents of the colleges were senators and sat in the Senate, but subsequently, of all the colleges, representation in the Senate was left only to the most important ones: the Military, Admiralties and Foreign Affairs.

The creation of a system of colleges completed the process of centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus. A clear distribution of departmental functions, uniform standards of activity (according to the General Regulations) - all this significantly distinguished the new apparatus from the order system.

Comparison of systems of orders and colleges is presented in the diagrams below.

Order system

Publication of the General Regulations

Decree of May 9, 1718 Peter I instructed the presidents of the Chambers, Revision, and Military Colleges, on the basis of the Swedish charter, to begin developing General Regulations- office work system, called "college".

The regulations approved the collegial way of making decisions by the collegiums, determined the procedure for discussing cases, organizing office work, and the relationship of the collegiums with the Senate and local authorities.

March 10, 1720 The General Regulations were issued and signed by the Tsar. This charter of the state civil service in Russia consisted of an introduction, 56 chapters containing the most general principles activities of the apparatus of all public institutions, and applications with the interpretation of foreign words included in it.

The order of consideration of cases in the colleges and the duties of officials under the General Regulations of 1720

Creation of the Holy Synod

Toward the end of the Northern War with Sweden, Peter I began preparations for the introduction of a new type of administrative institutions - colleges. According to a similar principle, it was supposed to establish the highest governing body of the Church, for which Bishop Feofan Prokopovich was instructed to develop Spiritual regulation. February 5, 1721 was published Manifesto on the establishment of the Theological College, later called "Holy Governing Synod".

All members of the Synod signed the regulations and personally swore allegiance to the tsar, and also pledged to look after the interests of the fatherland and Peter I. May 11, 1722- To control the activities of the Synod, the position of chief prosecutor was created, who reported to Peter I on the state of affairs.

Thus, the sovereign built the church into the mechanism of the state, making it one of the administrative institutions with certain duties and functions. The abolition of the office of patriarch, who has ordinary people influence comparable to the influence of Peter I himself, concentrated all power in the hands of the king and was another step towards strengthening the absolutist form of government.

Creation of the Secret Chancellery (Preobrazhensky Prikaz)

Preobrazhensky order was founded by Peter I in 1686, as a clerical institution for managing the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky amusing regiments. Gradually, as the power of Peter I strengthened, the order received more and more new functions - in 1702 the tsar issued a decree according to which all those who reported on state crimes (treason, attempted assassination of the monarch) were sent to Preobrazhensky order. Thus, main function, which was carried out by this institution - the persecution of participants in anti-serfdom speeches (about 70% of all cases) and opponents of the political transformations of Peter I.

The Secret Chancellery is one of the central governing bodies

The Secret Office was established in February 1718 In Petersburg. It was created for the investigation of the case of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, then other political cases of extreme importance were transferred to it; the two institutions subsequently merged into one

Local Government Reforms

Provincial reform

The reform of local government began long before the creation of collegiums - the first stage of the provincial reform already in 1708 introduced the division of the state into provinces - this was done so that tax collections from these areas would support the fleet, and recruits entering the service could be quickly transferred to the war.

Heads of administrative levels as a result of provincial reform

Second phase became possible after the difficult years of the war had passed, so Peter I December 7, 1718 approved the decision of the Senate on the creation of provinces and their division into districts, controlled by zemstvo commissars. Thus, The regional reform divided local self-government into three parts: province, province, district.

The governors were appointed by Peter I personally and received full power over the provinces they ruled. The governors and provincial administrations were appointed by the Senate and reported directly to the colleges. Four collegiums (Cameras, State Offices, Yustits and Votchinnaya) had their own cameramen (tax control), commandants and treasurers on the ground. The governor was usually the head of the province, the zemstvo commissars were in charge of the financial and police departments in the county.
Large cities of the provinces had a separate city administration - magistrates.

Provincial administrative bodies were built into the general system

urban reform

In 1720 Peter I creates Chief Magistrate, and in the next 1721 issue regulations for it. The division of cities into categories was introduced, and the inhabitants (townspeople) into categories.

For all connoisseurs of Russian history, the name of Peter 1 will forever remain associated with the period of reform in almost all spheres of life. Russian society. And one of the most important in this series was the military reform.

Throughout his reign, Peter the Great fought. All his military campaigns were directed against serious opponents - Sweden and Turkey. And in order to wage endless exhausting, and besides, offensive wars, a well-equipped, combat-ready army is needed. Actually, the need to create such an army was main reason military reforms of Peter the Great. The process of transformation was not instantaneous, each stage took place at its own time and was caused by certain events in the course of hostilities.

It cannot be said that the tsar began reforming the army from scratch. Rather, he continued and expanded the military innovations conceived by his father Alexei Mikhailovich.

So, let's look at the military reforms of Peter 1 briefly point by point:

Reformation of the archery troops

In 1697, the archery regiments, which were the new army, were disbanded, and subsequently completely abolished. They were simply not ready for constant hostilities. In addition, the streltsy riots undermined the tsar's confidence in them. Instead of archers in 1699, three new regiments were formed, which were also staffed by disbanded foreign regiments and recruits.

The introduction of recruitment

In 1699, a new system for recruiting the army was introduced in the country - recruitment. Initially, recruiting was carried out only as needed and regulated by special decrees, which stipulated the number of recruits needed at the moment. Their service was for life. The basis of recruitment sets were the taxable estates of peasants and townspeople. The new system made it possible to create a large standing army in the country, which had a significant advantage over European mercenary troops.

Changing the system of military training

Since 1699, the training of soldiers and officers began to be carried out according to a single combat charter. The emphasis was on continuous military training. In 1700, the first military school for officers was opened, and in 1715, the Naval Academy in St. Petersburg.

Changes in the organizational structure of the army

The army was officially divided into three types of troops: infantry, artillery and cavalry. The entire structure of the new army and navy was reduced to uniformity: brigades, regiments, divisions. The management of the affairs of the army was transferred to the jurisdiction of four orders. Since 1718, the Military Collegium has become the highest military body.

In 1722, the Table of Ranks was created, which clearly structured the system military ranks.

Rearmament of the army

Peter I began to arm the infantry with flintlock guns with a bayonet of the same caliber and swords. Under him, new models of artillery pieces and ammunition were developed. The newest types of ships were created.

As a result of the military reforms of Peter the Great, rapid economic growth began in Russia. Indeed, in order to provide such an army colossus, new steel and weapons factories, factories for the production of ammunition were needed. As a result, by 1707 the dependence of the state on the import of weapons from Europe was completely eliminated.

The main results of the reform were the creation of a large and well-trained army, which allowed Russia to start an active military rivalry with Europe and emerge victorious from it.

Started in the second half of the 17th century. transformations found their logical conclusion in the reign of Peter I (son of Alexei Mikhailovich).

Peter was proclaimed king in 1682 BC, but in reality there was a so-called “triarchal government”, i.e. together with his brother Ivan and Princess Sophia, who concentrated all power in her hands. Peter and his mother lived in the villages of Preobrazhensky, Kolomensky, Semenovsky near Moscow.

IN 1689 Mr. Peter, with the support of many boyars, nobles, and even the Moscow Patriarch, deprived Sophia of power, imprisoning her in a monastery. Until 1696 (until his death), Ivan remained a “ceremonial king”, i.e. formally shared power with Peter.

From the 90s of the XVII century. starts new era associated with the transformations of Peter I, which affected all aspects of the life of Russian society. As the ardent admirers of Peter figuratively noted, in fact the 18th century began before the grandiose fireworks arranged in Moscow on January 1, 1700 on the occasion of the new century.

Military reforms

The reforms of Peter I were guided by the conditions of his time. This king did not know the world, he fought all his life: first with his sister Sophia, then with Turkey, Sweden. Not only to defeat the enemy, but also to take a worthy place in the world, Peter I began his transformations. The starting point for the reforms was Azov campaigns (1695-1696).

In 1695, Russian troops besieged Azov (a Turkish fortress at the mouth of the Don), but due to a lack of weapons and a lack of a fleet, they failed to take Azov. Realizing this, Peter, with his characteristic energy, set about building a fleet. It was decided to organize the Kumpanstvo, which would be engaged in the construction of ships. A single Kumpanstvo, which consisted of merchants and townspeople, was obliged to build 14 ships; Admiralty - 16 ships; one ship - an obligation from every 10,000 landlord peasants and 8,000 monastery peasants. The fleet was built on the Voronezh River at its confluence with the Don. In 1696, the Russian naval forces won their first victory - Azov was taken. The following year, Peter sends to Europe the so-called Great Embassy of 250 people. In its composition, under the name of the sergeant of the Preobrazhensky regiment, Peter Mikhailov, was the tsar himself. The embassy visited Holland, England, Vienna. As he believed, the idea of \u200b\u200btraveling abroad (the Great Embassy) arose from Peter I as a result of the transformations that had begun. For knowledge and experience, the king went to Europe in 1697-1698. Researcher A.G. Brikner, on the contrary, believed that it was after a trip to Europe that Peter I came up with a reform plan.

In the summer of 1698, the trip was interrupted due to a report received about the rebellion of the archers. The king took a personal part in the executions, Sophia was tonsured a nun. The Streltsy army was to be disbanded. The king began to reorganize the army and continued building the fleet. It is interesting to note that in addition to general leadership, Peter was directly involved in the creation of the fleet. The tsar himself, without the help of foreign specialists, built the 58-gun ship "Predestination" ("God's foresight"). Back in 1694 during sea voyage arranged by the tsar, the Russian white-blue-red flag was raised for the first time.

With the outbreak of war with Sweden, the construction of the fleet was also started in the Baltic. By 1725, the fleet in the Baltic consisted of 32 battleships armed with 50 to 96 guns each, 16 frigates, 85 galleys and many other smaller vessels. The total number of Russian military sailors was about 30 thousand. Peter personally compiled Marine charter, where it was written "Only that sovereign has both hands, who has both the land army and the fleet."

Peter I chose a new principle for manning the army: recruiting kits. From 1699 to 1725 53 recruits were carried out, giving the army and navy more than 280 thousand people. Recruits underwent military training, received state-owned weapons and uniforms. The army also recruited "eager people" from free peasants with a salary of 11 rubles a year.

Already in 1699, Peter formed, in addition to two guards regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky - 29 infantry and 2 dragoons. By the end of his reign, the total number of the Russian army was 318 thousand people.

Peter strictly ordered all the nobles to carry military service starting with a soldier's rank. In 1716 was published Military charter, which regulated the order in the army in wartime and peacetime. Training of officers was carried out in two military schools - Bombardier (artillery) and Preobrazhenskaya (infantry). Subsequently, Peter opened naval, engineering, medical and other military schools, which allowed him at the end of his reign to completely refuse to invite foreign officers to the Russian service.

Public Administration Reform

Of all the transformations of Peter I, the central place is occupied by the reform of public administration, the reorganization of all its links.

The main goal of this period was to provide a solution major problem- wins in . Already in the first years of the war, it became clear that the old state mechanism of government, the main elements of which were orders and districts, did not provide for the growing needs of the autocracy. This was manifested in the lack of money, provisions, and various supplies for the army and navy. Peter hoped to radically solve this problem with the help of regional reform- creation of new administrative formations - provinces, uniting several counties. IN 1708. was formed 8 provinces: Moscow, Ingermanland (St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Arkhangelsk, Kazan, Azov, Siberian.

The main goal of this reform was to provide the army with everything necessary: a direct connection was established between the provinces and the regiments of the armies, which were distributed among the provinces. Communication was carried out through a specially created institution of krieg commissars (the so-called military commissars).

An extensive hierarchical network of bureaucratic institutions with a large staff of officials was created on the ground. The former system "order - county" was doubled: "order (or office) - province - province - county".

IN 1711 Senate was created. The autocracy, which had grown considerably in the second half of the 17th century, no longer needed institutions of representation and self-government.

At the beginning of the XVIII century. in fact, the meetings of the Boyar Duma are stopped, the control of the central and local state apparatus is transferred to the so-called “Consilia of Ministers” - a temporary council of the heads of the most important government departments.

Particularly important was the reform of the Senate, which occupied a key position in state system Peter. The Senate concentrated judicial, administrative and legislative functions, was in charge of colleges and provinces, appointed and approved officials. The unofficial head of the Senate, consisting of the first dignitaries, was prosecutor general, endowed with special powers and subordinate only to the monarch. The creation of the post of Prosecutor General laid the foundation for a whole institution of the Prosecutor's Office, the model for which was the French administrative experience.

IN 1718 - 1721. the system of command administration of the country was transformed. was established 10 colleges, each of which was in charge of a strictly defined industry. For example, the Collegium of Foreign Affairs - with foreign relations, the Military - with ground armed forces, the Admiralty - with the fleet, the Collegium of Chambers - with the collection of revenues, the Collegium of State Offices - with state expenditures, the Collegium of Commerce - with trade.

Church reform

It became a kind of board Synod, or the Spiritual College, established in 1721 The destruction of the patriarchate reflected the desire of Peter I to eliminate the "princely" system of church authority, unthinkable under the autocracy of Peter the Great's time. By declaring himself the de facto head of the church, Peter destroyed its autonomy. Moreover, he made extensive use of the institutions of the church to carry out his policies.

Supervision of the activities of the Synod was entrusted to a special state official - chief prosecutor.

Social politics

Social policy was pro-noble and feudal in nature. Decree of 1714 on uniform inheritance established the same order of inheritance of immovable estates, without distinction between estates and estates. The merging of two forms of feudal landownership - patrimonial and local - completed the process of consolidating the class of feudal lords into a single class - estate nobles and strengthened its dominant position (often in the Polish manner, the nobility was called the gentry).

In order to force the nobles to think of service as the main source of wealth, they introduced primogeniture- It was forbidden to sell and mortgage land holdings, including ancestral ones. The new principle reflected in Tables of ranks 1722. strengthened the nobility due to the influx of people from other classes. With the help of the principle of personal service, strictly stipulated conditions for promotion up the ranks, Peter turned the mass of servicemen into a military-bureaucratic corps, completely subordinate to him and dependent only on him. The table of ranks divided the military, civil and court services. All posts were divided into 14 ranks. An official who reached the eighth grade (collegiate assessor) or an officer received hereditary nobility.

urban reform

Significant was the reform in relation to the inhabitants of cities. Peter decided to unify the social structure of the city by introducing Western European institutions into it: magistrates, guilds and guilds. These institutions, which had deep roots in the history of the development of Western European medieval city, were brought into Russian reality by force, by administrative means. The chief magistrate supervised the magistrates of other cities.

The townspeople were divided into two guilds: the first was made up of the “first class”, which included the top tenants, rich merchants, artisans, citizens of intelligent professions, and in second guild included small shopkeepers and artisans, who, in addition, were united in workshops on a professional basis. All other townspeople who were not included in the guilds were subject to verification in order to identify runaway peasants among them and return them to their former places of residence.

tax reform

The war absorbed 90% of government spending, peasants and townspeople bore numerous duties. In 1718 - 1724. A head-to-head census of the male population was carried out. Landlords and monasteries were ordered to submit "tales" (information) about their peasants. The government instructed the guards officers to revise the submitted statements. Since then, censuses have been called audits, and the “soul” has become the unit of taxation instead of the peasant household. The entire male population had to pay poll tax.

Development of industry and trade

As a result of the transformations of Peter I, manufactory production began to actively develop, and industry was created. By the end of the XVII century. there were about 30 manufactories in the country. During the years of Peter's reign, there were more than 100 of them. A movement began in the direction of overcoming the technical and economic backwardness of Russia. Large-scale industry is growing in the country, especially metallurgical (in the Urals), textile and leather (in the center of the country), new industries are emerging: shipbuilding (Petersburg, Voronezh, Arkhangelsk), glass and earthenware, paper production (Petersburg, Moscow).

Russian industry was created in conditions of serfdom. Worked in factories sessional(bought by breeders) and ascribed(paying taxes to the state not with money, but with work at the factory) peasants. Russian manufactory was in fact like a serf estate.

The development of industrial and handicraft production contributed to the development of trade. The country was in the process of creating an all-Russian market. In order to encourage the merchants, in 1724 the first trade tariff was introduced, which taxed the export of Russian goods abroad.

Public Administration Reform

Creation of the Near Office (or Council of Ministers) in 1699. It was transformed in 1711 into the Governing Senate. Establishment of 12 collegiums with a specific scope of activity and authority.

The system of state administration has become more perfect. The activities of most state bodies became regulated, the collegiums had a clearly defined area of activity. Supervisory bodies were created.

Regional (provincial) reform

1708-1715 and 1719-1720.

At the first stage of the reform, Peter 1 divided Russia into 8 provinces: Moscow, Kyiv, Kazan, Ingermandland (later St. Petersburg), Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Azov, Siberia. They were ruled by governors who were in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province, and also possessed full administrative and judicial power. At the second stage of the reform, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces ruled by governors, and those were divided into districts led by zemstvo commissars. The governors were stripped of their administrative power and were in charge of judicial and military matters.

There was a centralization of power. Local governments have almost completely lost influence.

Judicial reform

1697, 1719, 1722

Peter 1 formed new judicial bodies: the Senate, the Justic College, the Hofgerichts, and the lower courts. Judicial functions were also performed by all colleagues, except for Foreign. The judges were separated from the administration. The court of kissers (an analogue of the jury trial) was canceled, the principle of the inviolability of an unconvicted person was lost.

A large number of judicial bodies and persons who carried out judicial activities (the emperor himself, governors, governors, etc.) brought confusion and confusion to the proceedings, the introduction of the possibility of "knocking out" testimony under torture created grounds for abuse and bias. At the same time, the adversarial nature of the process was established and the need for the verdict to be based on specific articles of the law corresponding to the case under consideration.

Military reforms

The introduction of recruitment, the creation of the navy, the establishment of the Military Collegium, which was in charge of all military affairs. Introduction with the help of the "Table of Ranks" of military ranks, uniform for all of Russia. Creation of military-industrial enterprises, as well as military educational institutions. Introduction of army discipline and military regulations.

With his reforms, Peter 1 created a formidable regular army, numbering up to 212 thousand people by 1725, and a strong navy. Subdivisions were created in the army: regiments, brigades and divisions, in the navy - squadrons. Many military victories were won. These reforms (although ambiguously assessed by different historians) created a springboard for the further success of Russian weapons.

Church reform

1700-1701; 1721

After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, the institution of the patriarchate was actually liquidated. In 1701, the management of church and monastery lands was reformed. Peter 1 restored the Monastic order, which controlled church revenues and the trial of the monastery peasants. In 1721, the Spiritual Regulations were adopted, which actually deprived the church of independence. To replace the patriarchate, the Holy Synod was created, whose members were subordinate to Peter 1, by whom they were appointed. Church property was often taken away and spent on the needs of the emperor.

The church reforms of Peter 1 led to the almost complete subordination of the clergy to secular power. In addition to the elimination of the patriarchate, many bishops and ordinary clergy were persecuted. The church could no longer pursue an independent spiritual policy and partly lost its authority in society.

Financial reforms

Almost the entire reign of Peter 1

The introduction of many new (including indirect) taxes, the monopolization of the sale of tar, alcohol, salt and other goods. Damage (reduction in weight) of the coin. Kopeck Stano Regional Reform

In the years 1708-1715, a regional reform was carried out in order to strengthen the vertical of power in the field and better provide the army with supplies and recruits. In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces headed by governors endowed with full judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingermandland (later St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberia. The Moscow province gave more than a third of the proceeds to the treasury, followed by the Kazan province.

The governors were also in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province. In 1710, new administrative units appeared - shares, uniting 5536 households. The first regional reform did not solve the set tasks, but only significantly increased the number of civil servants and the cost of their maintenance.

In 1719-1720, the second regional reform was carried out, which eliminated the shares. The provinces began to be divided into 50 provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts headed by zemstvo commissars appointed by the Chamber Collegium. Only military and judicial matters remained under the jurisdiction of the governor.

Judicial reform

Under Peter, the judicial system underwent radical changes. The functions of the Supreme Court were given to the Senate and the College of Justice. Below them were: provinces - hofgerichts or court courts of appeal in major cities, and provincial collegiate lower courts. The provincial courts conducted civil and criminal cases of all categories of peasants except for the monastic ones, as well as townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, the magistrate conducted the court cases of the townspeople included in the settlement. In other cases, the so-called one-man court acted (cases were decided solely by a zemstvo or city judge). However, in 1722 the lower courts were replaced by provincial courts headed by the voivode

Church reform

One of the transformations of Peter I was the reform of church administration he carried out, aimed at eliminating church jurisdiction autonomous from the state and subordinating the Russian church hierarchy to the Emperor. In 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, instead of convening a council to elect a new patriarch, Peter I temporarily appointed Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan as the head of the clergy, who received the new title of Custodian of the Patriarchal Throne or "Exarch". including the peasants belonging to them (approximately 795 thousand), the Monastic order was restored, headed by I. A. Musin-Pushkin, who again became in charge of the court of the monastic peasants and controlled income from church and monastic land holdings. In 1701, a series of decrees was issued to reform the management of church and monastery possessions and the organization of monastic life; the most important were the decrees of January 24 and 31, 1701.

In 1721, Peter approved the Spiritual Regulations, the drafting of which was entrusted to the Pskov bishop, Feofan Prokopovich, an approximate tsar, Little Russian. As a result, a radical reform of the church took place, which eliminated the autonomy of the clergy and completely subordinated it to the state. In Russia, the patriarchate was abolished and the Spiritual College was established, soon renamed the Holy Synod, which was recognized by the Eastern patriarchs as equal in honor to the patriarch. All members of the Synod were appointed by the Emperor and took an oath of allegiance to him upon taking office. Wartime stimulated the removal of valuables from the monastic vaults. Peter did not go for the complete secularization of church and monastery possessions, which was carried out much later, at the beginning of his reign

Reforms of the army and navy

Army reform: in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new order, reformed according to a foreign model, was begun long before Peter I, even under Alexei I. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. Reforming the army and creating a fleet became necessary conditions for victory in northern war 1700-1721.

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3.1. Central government reform

3.3. City government reform

3.4. Results of public administration reform

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Faculty of State and Municipal Administration

REFORMS OF PETER I.

RUSSIA IN THE FIRST QUARTER OF THE 18TH CENTURY

Motorkin Andrey Yurievich,

Syktyvkar

Briefly about the essence and content of administrative reforms

Reasons for the reforms of the state apparatus

Goals and objectives administrative reforms

Reforms of the central government of Peter I the Great

Creation of the Middle Office and the abolition of the Boyar Duma

Creation of the Governing Senate

Creation of Colleges

Publication of the General Regulations

Creation of the Holy Synod

Creation of the Secret Chancellery (Preobrazhensky Prikaz)

Local Government Reforms

Provincial reform

urban reform

Reformation of the archery troops

The introduction of recruitment

Changing the system of military training

Changes in the organizational structure of the army

Rearmament of the army

Military reforms

Public Administration Reform

Church reform

Social politics

urban reform

tax reform

Development of industry and trade

Goals and objectives
administrative reforms