In the 17th century, the process of centralization of state power was underway in Russia, and trends in the formation of absolutism began to clearly appear. If Russian tsarism at the beginning of the 17th century bore the features of a class-representative monarchy, then from the second half of the century political system countries have evolved. This was manifested in strengthening the sole power of the tsar, limiting the activities of class-representative institutions, attracting “outbred” people to state administration, increasing the role of Orders and in the final victory of secular power over church power.

The process of bureaucratization of state administration was also reflected in an attempt to change the nature of the Boyar Duma. Its composition and prerogatives changed. The composition of the Duma increased due to the clerks, the state bureaucracy. She remained the highest official instance of the state. Many members of the Duma performed the duties of heads of orders. Thus, elements of activity characteristic of the government appeared. However, at the end of the 17th century, the significance of the Boyar Duma fell sharply.

The relationship between power and society was defined in the Council Code of 1649 - the main code of laws of the autocratic monarchy. Cathedral code legislatively fixed the autocratic, despotic nature of state power. Two chapters of this document were devoted to the observance of the prestige of the royal power, which determined the penalties for all thoughts and actions that caused damage to both the "sovereign honor" and the royal court.

An important evidence of the strengthening of the autocracy was the decline in the significance of Zemsky Sobors as organs of class representation. Zemsky Sobors in Russia were of the same type with the estate-representative institutions that arose in the XIII-XVI centuries in Western Europe(English Parliament, French states general etc.), but due to the strengthening of the autocracy they played a generally less significant role than in the West.

Zemsky Sobors were especially active after the Time of Troubles, when the tsarist government needed the support of wide circles of the nobility and the top of the merchant class. Vital issues of foreign and domestic policy of the state were brought up for discussion by Zemsky Sobors. Zemsky Sobors operated almost continuously in 1613-1622. Then there is a ten-year break in the convocation of Zemsky Sobors, after which they were convened periodically. The Zemsky Sobor of 1653, convened to discuss the issue of the reunification of Ukraine with Russia, is considered the last full council.

Thus, by the end of the 17th century, the political system of the country had evolved to absolutism, which was expressed in the decline in the role of institutions characteristic of a class-representative monarchy, which was Russia with its Boyar Duma and boyar aristocracy.

Russia's transition to absolutism manifested itself in various spheres of the country's political life in the following moments:

in changing the royal title;

in the withering away of such an attribute of a class-representative monarchy as the Zemsky Sobor;

in the evolution of the order system, as well as the composition of the Boyar Duma;

in raising the importance of various segments of the population in the state apparatus;

in a victorious outcome for the royal power of its rivalry with the power of the church.

Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century. led to the complete collapse of Russian statehood, undermining the authority of the boyar and palace nobility (as a contemporary noted, “the wise elders are impoverished and wonderful advisers are exhausted”), mass terror from all rival groups had severe psychological consequences. The economy was destroyed and the country depopulated. The geopolitical situation remained extremely difficult.

17th century - the time of strengthening the mobilization nature of Russia's development. The restoration of the national economy, constant wars, uprisings and riots as a response to enslavement, financial difficulties and abuses of the administration, the rapid expansion of the territory (annexation of Ukraine, Eastern Siberia and the Far East, advancement to the Caucasus, etc.), which resulted in the transformation of Russia into the largest continental empire of the world, demanded the concentration of national forces, led to the completion of the establishment of serfdom. Along with this, small-scale production, manufactories are developing, an all-Russian national market is beginning to form, and European cultural and civilizational achievements are actively penetrating Russia.

The Romanov dynasty did not have its own real material, power means and mechanisms for asserting power, gaining legitimacy and strength. As already mentioned, the Time of Troubles was not just a threat to independence, the loss of territorial integrity, but also the loss of the Orthodox self-identification of the Russian people. Therefore, the revival of autocracy and the restoration of statehood took place and could only take place on foundations close to the canonical ideas about the state as a “symphony of authorities”, the dual unity of secular and spiritual authorities, autonomously existing, but equally ensuring the protection and triumph of Orthodoxy by their own means.

First half of the 17th century became the most complete implementation of these ideas. Ideally, the “symphony of authorities” opposed both the concepts of theocracy (papacesarism) and absolute tyranny and despotism.

The restoration of statehood on Orthodox spiritual and moral foundations was facilitated by the fact that Patriarch Filaret (1619-1633) - in the world Fyodor Nikitich Romanov - was the father of the tsar. F.N. Romanov, an outstanding and influential boyar during the time of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, even competed with Boris Godunov for power, which ended for him in defeat and monastic vows. With his return from Polish captivity after the Deulino truce and election as patriarch, in fact, the process of the revival of Russia begins.

The vacillating, unstable policy of the boyar Duma is being replaced by firm power. The tsar and the patriarch equally enjoyed the title of "great sovereign". In fact, power was concentrated in the hands of Patriarch Filaret, who energetically used it to strengthen both state and spiritual power.

The highest bodies of state power

In the 17th century finally formed the national form of the monarchy - the autocracy. Although all the autocrats of the XVII century. The Romanov dynasties were elected by Zemsky Sobors (1613 - Mikhail, 1645 - Alexei, 1682 - Peter and Ivan V, the exception was the accession of Fedor Alekseevich in 1676, for which the decision of the boyar Duma turned out to be enough), the source of their power was not the will of the class, but God . The national image of power was sacred. The tsar, the autocrat of all Rus', was perceived as the embodiment of the highest Orthodox values ​​- Truth, Goodness, Beauty, Justice, as the defender of "Holy Russia", "House of the Most Holy Theotokos", as Holding (Katekhon) the "Island of Salvation" - Russia - against the background of the engulfing world apostasy (Ottoman Empire, religious wars in Europe, the spread of heresies, etc.). On a symbolic level, this was enshrined in the sacrament of crowning the kingdom, which was performed by the patriarch (metropolitan or council of hierarchs) - the laying on the king of the crown (crown) and barm, the presentation of the scepter, orb, dressing in purple and pronouncing the creed. Since the 17th century anointing to the kingdom is carried out. The authority of the tsarist government was almost absolute, therefore, numerous popular performances of the 17th century. were held under the slogans of a kind, just, Orthodox tsar. (Among the Turkic peoples of Russia, this image was symbolically fixed as the image of the "White Tsar", the "bearer of the White Vow", who resumed the mission of the "White Mongol" - Genghis Khan).

At the same time, the essence of autocratic power was not fixed in the 17th century. in legislation. The power of the tsar was limited only by Orthodox morality and established traditions (which was not a fiction at all).

During the period of restoration of Russian statehood, Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich and Patriarch Filaret relied on the Church and the entire system of estate bodies in Russia to strengthen the autocracy. From the second half of XVII century, during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, the centralization and bureaucratization of state administration intensified, the process of desacralization and rationalization of power in the elite public consciousness was born, and autocracy began to evolve towards absolute, i.e. politically unlimited monarchy. The relationship between the concepts of autocracy and absolutism, the dominant prerequisites for the transition to absolute monarchy, remain debatable in the historical and legal literature.

17th century there is a transformation of the Russian political system from a class-representative monarchy to autocracy. Under a limited monarchy, the sovereign exercises power together with the highest class-representative bodies: the king, when making a decision, must obtain their consent. Under autocracy, the tsar had only to discuss the issue with them, and the final decision remained with him. After 1613, the power of the tsar was at first seriously limited by the boyars. Zemsky Sobors, expressing the interests of many sections of society, acted as a real counterbalance to the Boyar Duma and played a very important role in political life. However, the existence of a limited monarchy in Russia was hampered by the absence among the estates, except for the boyars, of the concept of their rights and their legislative formalization. In the minds of the lower and middle strata of society, class rights were confused with the rights of the draft community. Under such conditions, the protection of their rights of the class was seen only in strengthening the power of the tsar, and not in creating a system for protecting these rights through representative bodies. In 1649, a new Code (code of laws) was adopted at the Zemsky Sobor. It strengthened the centralized public administration and consolidated the autocratic power of the king. With the adoption of this Code, the role of estate representation falls.

Social conflicts:

"Salt Riot" (1648) The government of Alexei Mikhailovich increases indirect taxes by raising the price of salt four times. The people were unable to buy salt at the new price. In 1647, the government canceled the tax, but it was decided to collect the arrears for three years by any means. This decision resulted in an open uprising in Moscow in June 1648, which was suppressed only with the help of bribed archers, who received an increase in salary.

"Copper Riot", (1662) oyna demanded money. The Russian government instead of a silver coin from 1654 at the same price began to mint copper. So much copper money was issued that it became worthless. The high cost of food led to famine. He was severely suppressed, the minting was stopped.

No. 16. European foreign policy of the first Romanovs. The end of the Polish-Swedish intervention (the Stolbovsky peace and the Deulino truce). Expansion of the territory of the Russian state in the XVII century.

The foreign policy of the first Romanovs:

1.Reunification of Left-bank Ukraine with Russia.-Ukraine was in the ring of strong countries, the Commonwealth, the Ottoman Empire and Russia. Ukraine needed an ally. In 1653, ambassadors from Khmelnitsky arrived in Moscow with a request for an alliance. In 1654, the Zemsky Sobor met, at which it was decided to take Ukraine under its protection. 1654 Ukraine was admitted to the Russian state. Ukraine was accepted on the rights of the widest autonomy.

War with the Commonwealth. (1654-1667, 13 years)

After the restoration from the Time of Troubles, Russia decided to return Smolensk, captured during the Time of Troubles by the Commonwealth. (1632 - 1634) The Russian army was weak. The siege of Smolensk did not produce results. The Polyanovsky Peace of 1634 left Smolensk and all the western territories of Russia captured during the Time of Troubles for the Poles. 1648 - uprising of Bohdan Khmelnytsky, against Polish domination on the territory of modern Ukraine. Due to weakness, Russia did not help the Cossacks, but after reunification with Ukrainian. Russian-pol began. war. In 1667 a truce was signed. According to him, Smolensk was returned to Russia, as well as all the lands lost during the Time of Troubles.

3.Russian-Swedish War 1656-1658.

The Russo-Swedish War of 1656-1658 arose as a result of Russia's desire to return territories in the northwest. and achieve access to the Baltic Sea. In 1658, a peace treaty was signed for 3 years, on favorable territorial terms for Russia, but after the expiration of the treaty, all the lands had to be returned so as not to start a war again.

Exploration of Siberia.

Ermak was the first to move with the campaign. At the beginning of the 17th century Siberia belonged to Russia.

Stolbovsky world - peace between Russia and Sweden, 1617. The Stolbovsky world essentially completed the Swedish intervention in Russia, which began during the Time of Troubles. Sweden returned many captured cities to Russia.

Deulin truce between Russia and the Commonwealth. Concluded in 1618 in the village after a failed attempt by the army of the Polish prince to capture Moscow. Russia and the Commonwealth ceded the conquered territories to each other.

The expansion of the territory of Russia in the XVII century. It happened due to the inclusion of new lands such as Siberia, the Left Bank of Ukraine, etc. Geographic discoveries Russian researchers also expanded the borders of Russia.

No. 17. Church schism and popular movements of the second half of the 17th century. Speech under the direction of S. Razin.

In 1653, wishing to strengthen the Russian Orthodox Church, Patriarch Nikon set about implementing a church reform designed to eliminate discrepancies in books and rituals, to unify (bring to a single) theological system throughout Russia.

church schism- this is the separation of part of the believers from the Russian Orthodox Church, who did not recognize the reform of Nikon (1653-1656) They began to be called Old Believers or schismatics.

The essence of church reform:

1) church innovations did not affect the foundations of the Russian religion and touched only its ritual side. But although it was about “frivolous” things, such as two-fingered or three-fingered, writing the name of Christ through one or two “and”, etc., it must be borne in mind that for each religion the ritual side is very important. People were outraged by the very fact of the intervention of secular authorities in traditional culture;

2) it was about the need to streamline and centralize church and all spiritual life, as this was required by processes in the socio-economic and political spheres.

Hidden reason - Nikon wanted to be higher than the king.

Members: Supporters of Nikon and opponents of Nikon (Old Believers-schismatics - Avvakum Petrov, Ivan Nerov)

Consequences of the split: 1) the church has weakened; 2) schismatics were persecuted; 3) the traditions and rituals of the schismatics were peculiar; 4) Solovetsky uprising (1668-1676)

Solovetsky uprising 1668-1676- the uprising of the monks of the Solovetsky Monastery against the church reforms of Patriarch Nikon. Due to the refusal of the monastery to accept innovations, the government took strict measures, ordered the confiscation of all the estates and property of the monastery. Total- the destruction of the Old Believers, the formation of a new faith.

The uprising of S. Razin. (1670-1671)

Causes:

1. Strengthening of feudal oppression

2. Depriving the Cossacks of the opportunity to live to protect the raids on Turkish and Crimean lands.

Reasons for the defeat:

1. Lack of a clear program

2.diverse composition

3.weak discipline

4.poor weaponry

5.faith in a good king

6. spontaneity

The scale of the massacre of the rebels was enormous, in some cities more than 11 thousand people were executed. In total, more than 100 thousand rebels were destroyed. Razintsy did not achieve their goal goals: destruction of the nobility and serfdom.

No. 18. The transformative activity of Peter I as an attempt to modernize Russia: state-political, socio-economic and cultural reform. Evaluation of the activities of Peter I in Russian historiography.

Peter I Alekseevich (1682–1725)

State-political reform:

1) after winning northern war Peter I took the title of emperor, Russia from that time began to be called an empire.

2) instead of the Boyar Duma, which ceased to exist, the Senate became the highest deliberative body under Emperor Peter I (since 1711). It was formed from senior officials who enjoyed the greatest confidence in the emperor. The main task of the Senate was to control the activities of lower bodies.

3) colleges were formed (since 1719). The main colleges were: Military, Admiralty and the Collegium of "Foreign Affairs".

4) the county-volost structure of the country was abolished. Russia was divided into 8 provinces (in 1708–1710). Provinces, in turn, were subdivided into provinces. The provinces were headed by governors, who were appointed by Peter from among his most trusted comrades-in-arms;

5) the Orthodox Church under Peter I was transformed into government agency headed by the Synod. Peter I inflicted great damage on the monasteries, which he considered the havens of parasites.

Transformations in the economic sphere:

1) manufactory. (opened by the treasury, after private individuals)

2) foreign trade developed. The new capital, St. Petersburg, becomes the largest center of maritime trade;

3) Peter I adhered to the practice of protectionism (the excess of export trade over import). Thus, he sought to support the developing Russian industry. In 1724, a customs tariff was adopted.

4) the former household taxation was replaced by a new poll tax - from the peasant soul

Transformations in the social sphere:

1) in relation to the Russian estates, the principle of equal obligation of one or another type of service to the Fatherland was introduced. The nobility, in particular, had to choose military or naval officer or civil bureaucratic service;

2) The decree on uniform inheritance of 1714 deprived the younger sons of the nobility of the right to inherit part of their father's estate. This was to stimulate their desire to earn a living in the service;

3) The Table of Ranks of 1722 put nobility in connection not with origin, birth in a noble family, but with the quality and duration of service.

4) led to the tightening of serfdom. Even those groups of estates that previously retained personal freedom fell into the category of serfs;

5) since 1705, recruitment duty began to operate: every year the villages had to put up recruits for lifelong service in regular army;

Cultural reform:

1) Since 1702, the first Russian newspaper Vedomosti has been systematically published.

2) Peter I in 1708 introduced a new civil font.

3) foundation in 1724 of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg.

5) Peter I established assemblies (balls) with the obligatory presence of women. This approved the beginning of the "rules of etiquette" and the use of foreign languages ​​(French)

The construction of St. Petersburg, the opening of the first theater,

Outcomes and meaning:

1) Russia has become strong European state;

2) for the most part, it was possible to overcome the technical and economic backwardness of the country;

3) the transformation of Peter I gave a great impetus to the socio-economic development of the country.

Evaluation of Peter's activity:

1)pre-revolutionary– a) Westerners: Peter's reforms introduced Russia to European civilization.

b) Slavophiles: Peter's reforms violated the national Russian foundation.

2)Soviet- Peter's reforms were progressive in nature, but at the expense of strengthening the "exploitation of the working people."

3)Modern - Russia took a step towards progress, but turned into a military-police state, with the eastern foundations of Russian absolutism and a monopolized serf economy.

No. 19. Foreign policy of Peter I. Changes in the geopolitical position of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century.

Foreign policy Peter I wanted to turn Russia into a great maritime power, so access to the seas - the Baltic and the Black - was necessary. Arkhangelsk remained the only Russian seaport, which could only be used for half a year.

Azov campaigns

Initially the main goal foreign policy Peter I began the struggle for access to the Black Sea. In 1695, the start of a campaign against Turkey was announced. However, the lack of troops (fleet) prevented the capture of the fortress of Azov. The failure of the first Azov campaign forced Peter to decide on the construction of the fleet. In 1696, Azov, besieged from the sea and from land, was taken. In 1700 a peace treaty was signed with Ottoman Empire, according to which Russia received Azov. However, Russia could not get Turkey's consent to the passage of Russian ships through the straits. Trade routes were still closed. Russia's acquisitions as a result of the Azov campaigns could not be consolidated: as a result of the unsuccessful war for Russia with Turkey in 1710-1713. (Prut campaign of 1711) Azov was returned to the Ottoman Empire.

"Great Embassy"

(In 1683, the "Holy League" was created, which Russia entered a few years later.)

In order to activate the "Holy League", as well as its expansion at the expense of the Netherlands, Denmark, England in 1697, the "Great Embassy" was sent to Europe. However, the governments of England and the Netherlands refused to provide political and material assistance to Russia in its struggle against the Ottoman Empire. Therefore, after the "Great Embassy" the center of gravity of Russia's foreign policy was shifted to the western direction.

Northern War (1700-1721)

In 1699, the Northern Alliance was created against Sweden, consisting of Russia, Denmark and Saxony. The main goal now was access to the Baltic Sea. In 1700, the Northern War with Sweden began. It can be divided into two stages: the first - from 1700 to 1709 (before the Battle of Poltava), the second - from 1709 to 1721 (from the Battle of Poltava to the conclusion of the Peace of Nystadt).

The war began unsuccessfully for the Northern Union. At the first stage of the war, Sweden was in the lead. The battle of Poltava (June 27, 1709) became the turning point in the war, in which the Russian army won. The Poltava victory meant a radical change in the course of the Northern War. The Northern Union, which collapsed in the pre-Poltava period, was restored. The victory in the Northern War opened Russia's access to the Baltic Sea. According to the Treaty of Nystadt in 1721, vast territories were assigned to Russia.

Synopsis on the history of Russia

After the turbulent events of the "Time of Troubles", when the authority of the upper classes was noticeably shaken, government in Russia was restored in the form estate representative monarchy, based on the Boyar Duma and zemstvo councils. Elected in 1613 as tsar, the young and weak character Mikhail Romanov did not play an independent role for a long time. State affairs were run by his relatives Saltykov and Cherkassky. Then, the father of the king, Patriarch Filaret, who returned from captivity, personally led the government for more than ten years. Having entered the throne young, the second Romanov - Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676), at the beginning of his reign was forced to share power - first with the boyar Morozov, and then for some time with Patriarch Nikon. The limitation of tsarist power under the conditions of a class-representative monarchy was explained by the privileged position of the boyar aristocracy, the top of which was part of the Boyar Duma, the highest government body.

But by the middle of the XVII century. the significance of the Boyar Duma gradually declined. Members of the Duma swore an oath not to do anything without the knowledge of the king. The tsar could resolve issues without the consent of the Duma.

The originality of the Russian monarchy of that period was expressed in the stability of class representation, especially the class of townspeople - the trade and craft elite. Therefore, in the evolution of the autocracy of Russia, the role of zemstvo sobors in the 17th century. gradually falls: the growing autocracy collects them less and less often to resolve certain important issues.

The autocratic state was based on developed bureaucracy. Central control was exercised through orders (special executive bodies). Their number was different, sometimes up to 50. Some of the orders were subordinated not to the sovereign, but to the patriarch. In the 17th century the importance of bureaucratic elements - clerks, clerks in the order system is increasing.

The fall of the elective principle in local self-government is observed. There is also a trend towards centralization. On the ground, the fullness of power - military, judicial, financial, etc. - carried out governors appointed by the government from the nobility. The voivodeship administration in some places swallowed up, and in some places subordinated all types of the former administration, and above all the zemstvo administration.

Thus, a new moment in the political field in the second half of the XVII century. was the evolution of the estate-representative monarchy in the direction of absolutism.

New trends are visible in the development Russian troops . In addition to the archery regiments and the noble cavalry, from the 30s. 17th century so-called. regiments of the "new" (or "foreign") system, staffed according to the principle of forced recruitment, trained and armed according to the western. The regiments of the "new system" by the end of the century began to play a large role in the system of organizing the armed forces of the Russian state, while the importance of the local militia fell sharply. At the same time, the archers lost their former purpose of the fighting force. In 1681, there were over 60,000 soldiers in Russia, about 30,000 reytars, over 50,000 archers, and only about 16,000 nobles. In addition, there were about 30,000 mounted "serving aliens" - Tatars, Mordovians and others.

At the same time, in the organization of the armed forces of Russia by the end of the 17th century. there were also serious shortcomings. First of all, they presented an extremely mixed picture. The recruitment, armament, training and supply of all these categories of troops were heterogeneous. There was no unified central command of the armed forces. Due to the economic backwardness of Russia, the army experienced a great shortage of guns, muskets, pistols and ammunition. The artillery had a lot of old-style guns made in the 15th-16th centuries. Thus, the military system that existed at the end of the 17th century could not adequately provide successful solution urgent domestic and foreign policy problems of the Russian state. It needed a radical reorganization.

The "Code" of 1649 forbids the new acquisition of land by the church. At the same time, her numerous privileges are being curtailed. This limits the economic power of the church. To manage the estates of monasteries and the clergy, a Monastic order was established.

In parallel with the withering away of estate representation, the political and ideological significance of royal power is growing. A new state seal, the word "autocrat" is introduced into the royal title. The ideology of autocracy was based on two provisions: the divine origin of royal power and the succession of the kings of the new dynasty from the Rurik dynasty.

Strengthening autocratic power in the 17th century

After the turbulent events of the "Time of Troubles", when the authority of the upper classes was noticeably shaken, state power in Russia was restored in the form of a class-representative monarchy, based on the Boyar Duma and zemstvo councils. Elected in 1613 as tsar, the young and weak character Mikhail Romanov did not play an independent role for a long time. State affairs were run by his relatives Saltykov and Cherkassky. Then, the father of the king, Patriarch Filaret, who returned from captivity, personally led the government for more than ten years. Having entered the throne young, the second Romanov - Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676), at the beginning of his reign was forced to share power - first with the boyar Morozov, and then for some time with Patriarch Nikon. The limitation of tsarist power under the conditions of a class-representative monarchy was explained by the privileged position of the boyar aristocracy, the top of which was part of the Boyar Duma, the highest government body.

But by the middle of the XVII century. the significance of the Boyar Duma gradually declined. Members of the Duma swore an oath not to do anything without the knowledge of the king. The tsar could resolve issues without the consent of the Duma.

The peculiarity of the Russian monarchy of that period was expressed in the stability of the class representation, especially the estate of the townspeople - the trade and craft elite. Therefore, in the evolution of the autocracy of Russia, the role of zemstvo sobors in the 17th century. gradually falls: the growing autocracy collects them less and less often to resolve certain important issues.

The autocratic state relied on a developed bureaucratic apparatus. Central control was exercised through orders (special executive bodies). Their number was different, sometimes up to 50. Some of the orders were subordinated not to the sovereign, but to the patriarch. In the 17th century the importance of bureaucratic elements - clerks, clerks in the order system is increasing.

The fall of the elective principle in local self-government is observed. There is also a trend towards centralization. On the ground, the fullness of power - military, judicial, financial, etc. - carried out governors appointed by the government from the nobility. The voivodeship administration in some places swallowed up, and in some places subordinated all types of the former administration, and above all the zemstvo administration.

Thus, a new moment in the political field in the second half of the XVII century. was the evolution of the estate-representative monarchy in the direction of absolutism.

New trends are noticeable in the development of the Russian army. In addition to the archery regiments and the noble cavalry, from the 30s. 17th century so-called. regiments of the "new" (or "foreign") system, staffed according to the principle of forced recruitment, trained and armed according to the western. The regiments of the "new system" by the end of the century began to play a large role in the system of organizing the armed forces of the Russian state, while the importance of the local militia fell sharply. At the same time, the archers lost their former purpose of the fighting force. In 1681, there were over 60,000 soldiers in Russia, about 30,000 reytars, over 50,000 archers, and only about 16,000 nobles. In addition, there were about 30,000 mounted "serving aliens" - Tatars, Mordovians and others.

At the same time, in the organization of the armed forces of Russia by the end of the 17th century. there were also serious shortcomings. First of all, they presented an extremely mixed picture. The recruitment, armament, training and supply of all these categories of troops were heterogeneous. There was no unified central command of the armed forces. Due to the economic backwardness of Russia, the army experienced a great shortage of guns, muskets, pistols and ammunition. The artillery had a lot of old-style guns made in the 15th-16th centuries. Thus, the military system that existed at the end of the 17th century could not adequately ensure the successful solution of the urgent domestic and foreign policy problems of the Russian state. It needed a radical reorganization.

The "Code" of 1649 forbids the new acquisition of land by the church. At the same time, her numerous privileges are being curtailed. This limits the economic power of the church. To manage the estates of monasteries and the clergy, a Monastic order was established.

In parallel with the withering away of estate representation, the political and ideological significance of royal power is growing. A new state seal is introduced, the word "autocrat" is introduced into the royal title. The ideology of autocracy was based on two provisions: the divine origin of royal power and the succession of the kings of the new dynasty from the Rurik dynasty.

Reforms of Patriarch Nikon.

The schismatic movement (Old Believers)

The growing autocracy collided with the claims of the church to the priority of spiritual authority over secular. The Russian Orthodox Church has always been dependent on the state. However, the formation of absolutism required further subordination of the church to it.

In the 40s. a circle of "zealots of ancient piety" formed around the tsar's confessor Stefan Vonifatiev. He gave impetus to the church reform during the years of Alexei Mikhailovich. The correction of liturgical books and the unification of church rites began. However, when it came to the choice of samples, there was a split among the clergy. Some preferred ancient Russian books, others - Greek.

Since 1652, the Patriarch Nikon was at the head of the latter, whose active reformatory activity was approved by the Church Council and the tsar. The state was interested in such a reform - the power of the church was limited, and the unification Orthodox churches would facilitate the reunification of Ukraine with Russia under the leadership of the latter. The Church of Ukraine was closely connected with the Greek rites. The Russian Church, on the other hand, differed greatly from the Greek one precisely in the ritual, as well as in the liturgical books, which contained many misprints made there by scribes.

In the course of the church reform, at the direction of Patriarch Nikon, the correction of liturgical books according to Greek originals began, a single cult of worship was established for all Orthodox churches, the sign of the cross was introduced with three fingers (two-finger was cursed), and only Greek icons were allowed for worship.

Archpriests Avvakum and Daniel, the future spiritual fathers of the schism, led the spiritual opposition to Nikon. The Church Council of 1655 marked the beginning of the struggle against the Old Believers. Nikon resorted to repression, sending opponents of the reforms into exile. On the other hand, he developed a tense relationship with the king. Carrying out the reform, he pursued far-reaching goals - to create a strong ecclesiastical authority, independent of the secular. If the reform of the church, carried out by the patriarch, met the interests of the autocracy, then his theocracy clearly contradicted the interests of Russia, as an absolute monarchy. The Church Council of 1666 unanimously condemned Nikon and deprived him of his high spiritual dignity.

The king himself became the head of the church reform. Russian society split into supporters and opponents of the reform. Archpriest Avvakum stood at the head of the latter - the Old Believers. Having become an implacable opponent of church reform, Avvakum was exiled with his family to Dauria. In 1664, after the fall of Nikon's authority, the schismatic was returned to Moscow (he was erroneously considered only a personal opponent of the deposed patriarch). However, in Moscow, not understanding the political intrigues at court, Avvakum disagrees not only with the church, but also with the government camp. He identifies the violent actions of the ecclesiastical and tsarist authorities against the schismatics with the "torture" of the ancient pagans over the first Christians and demands that the reforms be abandoned. Soon Avvakum was again exiled to Mezen, and then sent to Pustozersk. From here, on May 1, 1666, he was summoned to the Cathedral in Moscow, and on May 13 he was stripped and cursed. In 1667, finally exiled to Pustozersk, Avvakum continued to send out his letters about the "old faith" from exile for 14 years. In 1682, Avvakum, the ideological inspirer of the Old Believers, was burned down.