Geography studies the surface of the Earth (see Earth sciences), its natural conditions, the distribution of natural objects on it (see physical geography), population, economic resources (see economic geography), this is the sphere of territorial distribution of something.

Object of study

Geography study object- laws and patterns of placement and interaction of components of the geographical environment and their combinations on different levels. The complexity of the object of study and the breadth of the subject area determined the differentiation of a single geography into a number of specialized (industry) scientific disciplines, forming a system of geographical sciences. Within its framework, natural (physical-geographical) and social (socio-economic) geographical sciences are distinguished. Sometimes geographic cartography is distinguished separately as a separate geographical discipline.

Geography is one of ancient sciences. Many of its foundations were laid in the Hellenic era. This experience was summarized by the outstanding geographer Claudius Ptolemy in the 1st century AD. e. The heyday of the Western geographical tradition occurs during the Renaissance, which is marked by a rethinking of the achievements of the late Hellenistic era and significant achievements in cartography, which are usually associated with the name of Gerhard Mercator. The foundations of modern academic geography were laid by Alexander Humboldt and Karl Ritter in the 1st half of the 19th century.

Subject and methods of geography

Satellite image of the Earth

Earth elevation map

Map as the basis of geographical research

“Every geographical research starts from a map and comes to a map; it begins with a map and ends with a map” (N. N. Baransky). Despite the introduction of new methods into geography, the cartographic method is one of the main ones when conducting research. This is due to the fact that a map is the most advanced way of transmitting spatial information. The modeling method in geography, geographic information and remote sensing methods are based on the cartographic method.

Geographical picture of the world and geographical culture

Geographical culture is most often understood as the culture of geography as a science. The culture of geographical knowledge of both geographers and the population. In his works “Geographical Culture” and “Geographical Picture of the World,” V.P. Maksakovsky examines these interrelated concepts from the perspective of modern geography. It includes the following components in geographic culture: 1) geographical picture of the world, 2) geographical thinking, 3) methods of geography, 4) the language of geography. There is a gap between popular and scientific geographical culture, since society is mainly faced with descriptive geography and has no idea about the language and methods of modern geography.

History of Geography

Geography of the Ancient East

In the second millennium BC. e. In ancient Egypt, expeditions were organized to the center of Africa, along the Mediterranean and Red Seas. The settlement of peoples, wars and trade expanded people's knowledge of the surrounding spaces and developed navigation skills based on the Sun, Moon and stars. The dependence of agriculture and cattle breeding on river floods and other periodic natural phenomena determined the appearance of the calendar.

In the III-II millennium BC. e. representatives of the Harappan civilization (in the territory of modern Pakistan) discovered the monsoons. The elements of geography contain sacred ancient Indian books. In the Vedas, an entire chapter is devoted to cosmology. In the Mahabharata you can find a list of oceans, mountains, and rivers. Already in the 9th-8th centuries BC. e. In ancient China, when choosing a place to build a fortress, maps of suitable sites were drawn up. In the 3rd century BC. e. works appear entirely devoted to geography, a compass and a device for measuring distance, and the “Regional Atlas” of China.

Ancient Mediterranean geography

Map of the world made by Ptolemy

We also received news of a round map of Aristagoras of Miletus, a contemporary of Hecataeus, executed on copper and depicting the sea, land and rivers. From the evidence of Herodotus and Aristotle we can conclude that ancient maps the inhabited earth was also depicted as round and surrounded by the ocean; from the west, from the Pillars of Hercules, the middle of the ecumene was cut through by the internal (Mediterranean) sea, to which the eastern internal sea approached from the eastern edge, and both of these seas served to separate the southern semicircle of the Earth from the northern. Round flat maps were in use in Greece back in the time of Aristotle and later, when the sphericity of the Earth was already recognized by almost all philosophers.

Age of Expeditions

Alexander von Humboldt, 1806

In the 17th-18th centuries, the search for new lands and routes was carried out on a state scale. Great importance acquired fixation, mapping and generalization of acquired knowledge. The search for the Southern continent ended with the discovery of Australia (Janszoon) and Oceania. James Cook made three expeditions around the world, discovering Hawaii and the Great Barrier Reef. Russian pioneers advanced into Siberia and the Far East.

Geographers

Scientists who made a significant contribution to the development of geography as a science [ ] :

Alexander von Humboldt, 1847

Carl Ritter

Travelers who made significant discoveries (excluding scientific travelers):

• Vasco da Gama
• Christopher Columbus
• Ivan Fedorovich Krusenstern
• Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev
• Afanasy Nikitin
• Marco Polo
• Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky
• and others.

Main geographical problems

Problems standing in the way of the development of geography and geographical sciences.

• The problem of the unity of geography as a science and the search for a single object of research.
• Development problem

To the hearths ancient civilization include: in the east Babylonia (in the south - the interfluve of the Tigris and Euphrates, in the north - Assyria), Egypt and Ancient China; in the west - Ancient Rome, Ancient Greece.

Science, as a form of human activity, arose in ancient Greece in the 6th – 5th centuries BC.

Ancient Greek scientists looked at nature as a whole. The main method of science at that time was logical analysis, which allowed ancient ancient scientists to make many remarkable conclusions that anticipated scientific discoveries new time.

Sphericality of the Earth recognized Thales in the 7th century BC, Pythagoras and his school in the 6th – 5th centuries BC, and in 384 – 322 BC Aristotle scientifically substantiated the idea of ​​sphericity. And this was the greatest achievement of that time.

From the idea of ​​sphericity follows the closely related idea of geographical zonation. Syrian Posidonius(II – I centuries BC) identified nine geographical zones or zones (we currently distinguish thirteen zones). Strabo(died in the 20s AD) a remarkable geographer, believed that there are five geographical belts or zones on the spherical Earth. Scientists of antiquity believed that the middle zone was uninhabited due to the heat and did not advise sailing from the northern hemisphere to the southern.

Of the specific geographical sciences, she achieved success earlier than others cartography. The most perfect ancient world map was compiled Ptolemy(2nd century BC). It was reprinted several times in the Middle Ages. Pretty accurate circumference of the earth was calculated Eratosthenes(276 – 194 BC). He also owns the term “ geography».

Geographical information is of great interest ancient Chinese. They knew how to draw maps, knew the properties of the magnetic needle, came to Pacific Ocean(1000 years BC), sailed along the marginal seas, discovered the Japanese islands. Long before our era, the Chinese had the correct ideas for those times about geographical features Asia, compiled unique descriptions and maps.

Founder analytical direction in physical geography it is rightly believed Aristotle. His great work “Meteorology”. Here he singles out the atmosphere as a single whole, including both the air and water shells. He is recognized as the founder of hydrology, meteorology, and oceanology. Eratosthenes called the father of geography. Mainly because he compiled a fairly accurate map of the Earth, drawing parallels and meridians on it. He also identified so-called “climates” - latitudinal bands with different day lengths. An attempt was made to divide the Earth into physical-geographical stripes - sphagrides.

In addition, it was Eratosthenes who emphasized unity of the World Ocean. Eratosthenes' work "Geographical Notes" has not reached us. However, the views of Eratosthenes were outlined by Strabo, and therefore we have the opportunity to present the work of Eratosthenes in all its harmony.

The merit of ancient scientists was that they sought explain scientific facts. And this led to the development historical-genetic method. Ancient scientists were interested in many things, and most importantly, in relationships. For example, the origin of the Nile Delta, the genesis of earthquakes, the formation of the Mediterranean, Black, Caspian Seas, and many other issues. In this regard, it stood out especially Strabo. Following Aristotle and Eratosthenes, Strabo believed that the surface of the Earth is constantly changing. “It is amazing,” wrote Strabo, “that some parts of the Earth, now inhabited, were formerly covered with seas, and our seas were inhabited Earths. Likewise, some springs, rivers and lakes dried up, others opened up - mountains were replaced by valleys, and vice versa.” And this was written in the 1st century BC! Strabo wrote 17 volumes of “geography” and 43 books of “history”.

One of the first regional experts it could be considered Herodotus(484 – 428 BC). The scientist traveled a lot (Asia Minor, Babylon, Egypt, Sicily, the Black Sea coast); collected and systematized geographical information (India, Sahara, Atlas), and then described nature, population, customs, religion - 9 volumes of “History”.

Features of this stage of development of geography: integrity ancient times. This is a bright period in the development of science in general and geography in particular. If the beginning of this period can be considered a continuation of the era of ancient cultures, then its completion is associated with the fall of the Western Roman Empire, which marked end ancient era, ancient science. It was forgotten in the Middle Ages. And they remembered the science of geography only during the Renaissance.

3. Geography of the Middle Ages

The slave system was replaced in the Middle Ages by a more progressive feudal system. However, at the beginning of the Middle Ages productive forces were poorly developed. Significant influence for science religion provided. The materialistic views of ancient scientists were forgotten, the idea of ​​the spherical shape of the Earth was rejected.

Kosma Indicoplov(6th century), author of the Christian Monograph of the Universe, claims that the Earth has the shape tabernacles, that is, the Earth is a quadrangle that is surrounded by oceans. On the maps of this time, Jerusalem was in the center, and paradise to the east.

However, religion also had a positive impact on the development of science: research was carried out in monasteries chronicles, descriptions, books were collected and printed.

The main feature of the feudal period was the isolation and disunity of people.

In the period from the 5th to the 15th centuries, the main achievements of geography come down to territorial discoveries. The greatest successes in the discovery and description of new lands were achieved by the Normans, Arabs, and Europeans.

"Northern People" Normans, inhabitants of Scandinavia, lived near the coast and were skilled sailors. They raided England, France, Holland, and reached Constantinople and North America. Northern France they captured was called " Normandy", which still exists today.

In 867 a Norman Naddot opened Iceland(ice land - ice country), founded the village of Reykjavik.

In 985 the Norman Eirik the Red opened Greenland(Green land - green country). A colony arose on its southern shore.

Further voyages of the Normans to the west led to the discovery North America(Boyarni and Leif the Happy) between 987 and 1000. It is not known exactly what places they visited: Labrador, or Newfoundland, or south of New York. Historians of geography cannot say for sure. But it’s absolutely certain that the Normans swam in North America long before Columbus.

At first glance, one is struck by the ease with which the Vikings (the people from the gulf) reached very remote places and hard-to-reach territories and covered large areas of North America. We do not belittle the courage and resourcefulness of the Normans, their art of building strong ships. Vessels that rode the waves well. But at the same time, it is very, very doubtful that the Normans would have been able to achieve such tremendous successes themselves if natural conditions had not contributed to them. X - XII centuries - this is the time climatic optimum, that is, the climate then was milder than now, and therefore there are fewer seas. Otherwise, the Vikings would not have been able to sail around the 65th parallel. Let us remember that they called Greenland a “green country” - there were pastures here. Only later did these areas become covered with ice. In the Icelandic sagas, ice is not mentioned as an obstacle to navigation.

Until about 1200, whale and seal hunters sailed to the shores of Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya.

During the Middle Ages, a significant role in geographical science was played by Arab scientists. In 711, moving west, the Arabs penetrated the Iberian Peninsula, in the south - into the Indian Ocean (up to Madagascar - 9th century), in the east - into China. They went around Asia from the south.

Arab scientist Biruni(973 - 1042 years) among Central Asian scientists was the first to express the idea of ​​the possibility rotation of the Earth around the Sun, measured the circumference of the Earth.

The great European traveler was Marco Polo(1254 - 1324). The Venetian Polo family - father, son, uncle - spent many years traveling. Their journey to China, Mongolia, by sea around South Asia, and to Western Asia lasted 45 years. Marco Polo opened the East to Europeans.“The Book of Marco Polo” tells about the animal world, vegetation, minerals and other objects (for example, monkeys, elephants, medicinal herbs, etc.). The narrative itself is fascinating, especially when it comes to spices, ivory, etc. “The Book of Marco Polo” was translated into many languages, and for a long time remained a valuable guide for all travelers to Central Asia, India, and China. Christopher Columbus also studied it.

4. Age of Discovery

In the 15th - 16th centuries, in the depths of feudal medieval society, the shoots of a new social system matured - capitalism. Industry and trade began to develop intensively, and commodity-money relations emerged. The role of cities has increased. Science and culture developed rapidly. This time was called the era Renaissance – Renaissance.

In art, culture, and science, the progressive traditions of ancient times began to be revived, but at a new level.

The era of the Great Geographical Discoveries and the beginning of the development of natural science are also associated with the Renaissance period.

It was a time of energetic and passionate people. Friedrich Engels called the Renaissance the greatest progressive revolution: “At that time there was almost not a single major person who did not travel far, did not speak four or five languages, and did not shine in several fields of creativity. The Age of Great Geographical Discovery is called so loudly because it was marked by grandiose achievements.”

At this time they were open to Europeans North, Central and South America, the route to India around Africa, the first trip around the world was made, the beginning of a systematic geographical discoveries in Siberia.

Let us dwell very briefly on the results of only a few trips. Those who wish can familiarize themselves in detail with the progress of the expeditions using the recommended literature.

The discovery of America is associated with the name Christopher Columbus(1451 - 1506) - the great Italian traveler. Let us recall that the Normans, having been the first to visit America, left no written evidence. Having discovered America, they did not, as it were, file a patent for this discovery. It fell into oblivion and was forgotten.

Purpose During Columbus's voyage, India and other eastern countries were fabulously rich. Columbus made four voyages.

Geographical and cartographic calculations were made with an error, and on October 12, 1492 (the day of the discovery of America), Columbus ended up in the Bahamas, and then on the islands of Cuba and Hispaniola (Haiti). The error was not discovered; Columbus believed that he had visited the eastern tip of Asia, that is, India. Until the end of his days, Columbus was mistaken in thinking that he had visited Asian territories. The perseverance and courage of a traveler who has overcome great difficulties is worthy of surprise.

The discovery of America is the most an important event in the era of great geographical discoveries.

It forced us to reconsider the previously existing views on the distribution of land and sea on Earth.

History has been unfair to Columbus. The continent he discovered received the name of another traveler. Amerigo Vespucci also visited America, but later than Columbus, and only as a member of the expedition led by Ojeda. However, Amerigo, unlike Columbus, eventually realized that he was not in Asia, but within another continent. He called this continent the New World. Vespucci's fame was brought to him by his letters to his homeland, where he described his journey picturesquely and with imagination, as well as the maps he compiled. The German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller proposed to name the newly discovered continent after Amerigo. At first it was only South America, and in 1538, on the famous Mercator map, the entire territory of America - both South and North - appears under this name.

The dream of Europeans to find a way to India was realized by a Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama(1469 – 1524 years). He began his journey in 1497 in Lisbon, circumnavigated Africa, and reached the Malabar coast near Calicut.

Along the paths of Columbus, seekers of new profit rushed to America. One of them, Balboa, in search of gold crossed Isthmus of Panama and saw with my own eyes the mysterious “South Sea”. This is how a European first visited the shores of the Pacific Ocean - in 1513 year.

And already in 1519 the Portuguese Ferdinand Magellan went on his first trip around the world. His ultimate goal was pragmatic - to reach the Moluccas, rich in spices, by the western route. Magellan had to work hard before he found the passage (Strait of Magellan) between the southern tip of South America and Tierra del Fuego. In 1519, he left the Spanish port (Sanlucarde - Barrameda), to the south of the Atlantic Ocean, and only in 1520 he discovered the strait and entered Pacific Ocean. As you know, the name of the ocean was given by Magellan, because during his voyage there was not a single storm. Having passed the Pacific and Indian oceans and rounded Africa, the expedition returned to Spain in 1522 with heavy losses. Magellan was killed. Of the five ships, only one remained.

With his journey, Magellan established: 1) the unity of the World Ocean; 2) opened the water space between America and Asia; 3) confirmed the idea that the Earth is spherical; 4) gave a more complete picture of the configuration of South America.

5. The Age of Great Russian Discoveries

In the 16th – 17th centuries. The heyday of Russian geographical discoveries began. Russians have collected geographical information before. The first Russian chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" by Nestor contains geographical data about Rus'.

In the 12th century, the Russians, in search of new markets, reached the White Sea. Russian voyages to the west to Scandinavia, to the north to Spitsbergen are noted, and the 12th century is a period of intensive Russian movement to the east. Over the course of several decades, Russian servicemen discovered Central, Eastern Siberia, and the Far East, including Kamchatka, and left their names on the map of the state.

The rapid movement deep into Siberia and the Pacific Ocean is a feat of Russian explorers. The paths were laid mainly along rivers and portages between rivers (through watersheds). It took a little over half a century to cross the space from the Ob to the Bering Strait (1639). Moskvin reaches the Pacific Ocean (exits to the ocean) near Okhotsk. Even earlier, in 1632, the Yakut fort was founded, and in 1643 - 1646 Poyarkov runs from Lena to Yana and Indigirka. Khabarov - pioneer of the Amur (1647 – 1650). Dezhnev in 1648, it goes around the Chukotka Peninsula from the sea, discovers a cape named after Dezhnev (Big Stone Nose) and proves, that Asia is separated from North America by a strait.

Peter I paid great attention to the development of science. In the 20s of the 18th century, an expedition was organized on his initiative D.G. Messerschmidt to Siberia. A doctor of medicine, a native of Danzig, Messerschmidt was sent to search for medicinal herbs, flowers, roots, and seeds. But Messerschmidt turned out to be competent enough to also collect information on mineralogy, botany, and zoology. During his travels (1720 - 1727) he visited the areas: south Western Siberia– Baraba steppe, and Priobsky North, Southern Siberia - Kuznetsk Alatau, Minusinsk Basin, Transbaikalia, Central Siberia, Central Mongolia, etc.

As a result of expeditions, Messerschmidt discovered in Siberia permafrost, graphite deposits, described salt lakes, found the skeleton of a mammoth (in the valley of the Tom River), collected numerous collections on botany, zoology, and mineralogy. The result of his expeditions was the ten-volume “Review of Siberia or three tables of simple kingdoms of nature.” The largest Russian geologist V.A. Obruchev believed that Messerschmidt laid the foundation for a systematic exploration of Siberia.

In the first half of the 18th century. continued geographical descriptions, but with weight gain geographical generalizations.

Began Lomonosov period. The flourishing of geographical science in Russia lasted 2.5 centuries - from the beginning of the 18th century - from V.N. Tatishchev (1686 - 1750) and M.V. Lomonosov, Russian scientific geography begins in Russia. Both of them began their activities during the reforms of Peter I. At this time, the word geography itself came into use in Russia.

The elder of the two contemporaries was V.N. Tatishchev. From the associates of Peter I he received the task write a textbook on the geography of Russia, since translated textbooks provided incorrect information about our country. But Tatishchev decided to first present the history of Russia, and only then, based on it, geography. In 1720, he was sent to the Urals as a manager of land-based mining factories, studied mining abroad and wrote “Russian History” for almost his entire life. This five-volume work was published between 1768 and 1848. In the field of geography, Tatishchev compiled geographical descriptions of Siberia and all of Russia, worried a lot about the organization of geographical education for young people, and compiled a Russian geographical and historical political dictionary. He developed classification of geographical sciences, which is distinguished by its historicism, attention to natural resources and economy. Tatishchev expressed and proved the idea of ​​the need to draw the border between Europe and Asia along the Urals, the Ural River, etc. He wrote a lot about the natural differences between the western and eastern slopes of the Urals.

Opened new horizons for geography M.V. Lomonosov. Lomonosov's rare genius allowed him to embrace many areas of science and art, including geography. In addition to physical and historical geography, he highlighted economic geography, proposing the term itself. Lomonosov made a great contribution to the development of meteorology. He discovered the belt of mountains.

In the 18th century, attempts were made to divide the country's territory into strips or regions. These experiments physical-geographical zoning were still elementary, and more often the entire territory was divided into three stripes. So, in 1766 F. Blooming on the European part I calculated: 1) the northern part (long and severe winter, there is no bread or tree fruits, but there is an abundance of berries, game animals and fish); 2) the middle part (winter is also cruel, but there are enough woody earthen fruits, medicinal herbs, livestock, wild animals, honey, good fish, birds, forests); 3) the southern part (it is warmer and even more fertile, although not as densely populated as the middle part).

IN late XVIII century at Catherine II (1729 – 1796) a grandiose event was held - general surveying of Russia in order to characterize all Lands owned by landowners and other owners. Many tables were compiled, which indicated the last name, first name, patronymic of the owner, the size of his land, the quality of the soil, mowing, and forests. Maps have been drawn up showing the boundaries of property and land. This event stimulated the development of the economics of geography in Russia.

In general, it can be said that in Russia, from mid-18th century century there has been serious interest in the essence of geographical science. Lomonosov and Tatishchev laid the theoretical foundations of geography in Russia and created the prerequisites for its further development.

6. Geography in Western Europe in the 18th – 19th centuries.

The 18th – 19th centuries were marked by major territorial discoveries, as well as the active work of such outstanding scientists as I. Kant, A. Humboldt, K. Ritter, A. Gettner, E. Reclus and others.

The English navigator made a great contribution to the discovery process J. Cook(1728 - 1779). Made three circumnavigations of the world. The purpose of the first expedition(1768 - 1771) was the discovery of new lands in the South Pacific Ocean, including the hypothetical Southern Continent. As a result, Cook established that New Zealand is not a protrusion of the southern continent, but is a double island; discovered the east coast of Australia. The purpose of the second trip there was (1772 - 1775) a search for the southern continent. J. Cook crossed the Antarctic Circle three times, saw ice several times, but did not find the mainland. But he discovered the South Sandwich Islands and the islands of New Caledonia, South Georgia, and Norfolk. He returned from the voyage convinced that, if the southern continent exists, it would be close to the pole, that is, in places inaccessible to humans. Cook's famous statement that there is no southern continent stopped sailing to the south for a long time. Third trip began in 1776 and ended tragically for Cook: he died - he was killed in 1779 on one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago. The goal was exploration of the North Pacific Ocean and search for the Northwest Passage, along the coast of North America. Cook's ships circled Africa, approached New Zealand, and from there turned north to the Hawaiian Islands. These islands were discovered by Cook. Next - to the Bering Strait. Thus, Cook did much to expand European understanding of the Pacific Ocean. But the main goal is to open Southern mainland and find the Northwest Passage - he failed. A mountain is named after J. Cook south island New Zealand, a group of islands in the Pacific Ocean, a bay in Alaska, a strait in the New Zealand islands.

During the period under review Africa was intensively studied. Soon it was divided and turned into colonies of strong European countries- England, France, Portugal, Spain. The famous English traveler made a great contribution to the study of this continent - David Livingston . He spent more than thirty years traveling around Africa (since 1840).

A major German philosopher and geographer was I. Kant. As a philosopher, he believed that the world exists objectively, but he unknowable. A person does not know objective reality, but only his sensations. Kant has a theory of the formation of planets - it is associated with the condensation of dispersed matter. But Kant's idea that the Universe is threatened by heat death due to the cooling of the Sun is incorrect. The earth is “warmed up” by radioactive processes discovered after Kant. For more than 40 years, Kant taught a course in physical geography at the University of Königsberg. Being a homebody, he did not enrich his course with original facts. However, Kant believed that there are two ways to study nature: geographical, which studies phenomena in space, and historical, which studies the sequence of phenomena in time. These paths, according to Kant, never intersect.

It's hard to overestimate the importance A. Humboldt(1769 - 1859) in development world geography. His main area of ​​research was Central and South America. During his five-year journey, Humboldt visited Venezuela, Cuba, Colombia, Ecuador, sailed along the Orinoco River, studied the equatorial part of the Andes, and compiled excellent collections and herbariums. The result of the expedition was the thirty-volume “Journey to the Equinox Regions of the New World.” He and Bonpland in 1799 - 1804 collected a colossal herbarium - 6,000 species, of which 3,500 species were completely new, unknown to science. In 1829, at the invitation of the Russian government, A. Humboldt traveled through the Urals, Altai, the coast of the Caspian Sea, the southwestern part of Siberia, etc. Humboldt is rightly considered one of founders of scientific regional studies, creator of the comparative method in geography. The most important thing for Humboldt was to find laws of nature, study order. He explored patterns of vegetation change both with latitude and height. He was the first to compile a map of isotherms of the northern hemisphere, and for the first time proposed the use of hypsometric curves to characterize the relief.

Named after Humboldt are: a mountain range in Central Asia and a mountain range in North America, a mountain on the island of New Caledonia, a cold current off the coast of Peru, several plant species and the mineral Humboldtite.

Humboldt's main geographical merit: he revived the ideas of ancient Greek scientists about geographical zoning .

Another major scientist lived at the same time as Humboldt - Carl Ritter (1779 - 1859). Unlike Humboldt, he traveled little, visiting only France, Italy, and Switzerland. He was more of a typical armchair scientist. He was considered one of founders of comparative geography. By the way, it was he who coined the term “geography”. Using the comparative method, he was able to explain individual relationships in nature, spatial relationships between different geographical objects.

Famous French scientist Elisée Reclus (1830 - 1905) is one of founders of modern regional studies. He owns the works: “Earth and people. General Geography" - nineteen volumes; “Man and the Earth” - six volumes. In them, Reclus described in detail all the countries of the world, giving many interesting details. E. Reclus wrote these wonderful words: “Geography in relation to man is nothing more than history in space, just as history is geography in time.” Reclus's works were republished, translated into many languages, and entire generations of geographers in different countries studied from it.

7. Geography in Russia in the 19th – early 20th centuries

During this period, geography in Russia developed very quickly:

1. Numerous studies have been conducted in around the world expeditions, travel – to Antarctica, Central Asia, Siberia, etc.;

2. Original scientific geographical schools were formed;

3. The Russian Geographical Society - RGS - wrote a bright page in the history of geographical research;

4. The foundations of geographical education were laid.

1. In the 19th century, the territory of Russia expanded significantly. The Russians established themselves in Kamchatka, and a Russian colony arose in Alaska and the northwestern coast of America. There is an urgent need to connect St. Petersburg with these remote areas. This is where the idea arose - to organize circumnavigation of the world.

The first Russian circumnavigation of the world was a voyage I.F. Krusenstern (1770 - 1846) and Yu.F. Lisyansky (1773 - 1837). Target travel - establish contact with Russian settlements in North-West America, visit Kamchatka, deliver the Russian embassy to Japan, conduct scientific research.

The ships “Nadezhda” (commanded by Kruzenshtern) and “Neva” (commanded by Lisyansky) left Kronstadt in August 1803, crossed the Atlantic Ocean, rounded Cape Horn and headed north across the Pacific Ocean. Later they separated. Lisyansky established contact with the Russian colony in America, explored the coast of Alaska and, through the Indian Ocean, rounding Africa, returned to Kronstadt in June 1806. During the voyage, an island was discovered in the Hawaiian Islands (now Lisyansky Island), studies of sea currents were carried out (together with Kruzenshtern, he established their direction and origin), and the coordinates of the points visited were determined. Kruzenshtern went to the shores of Kamchatka, reached Petropavlovsk, then stayed in Japan for seven months - in Nagasaki - and again moved to Kamchatka (it was necessary to deliver the ambassador to Petropavlovsk). Along the way, Kruzenshtern explored part of the Kuril Islands and the coast of Sakhalin. Later, returning home, the expedition carried out hydrographic, astronomical and other observations. Numerous materials on vegetation, fauna, and ethnography were collected. Kruzenshtern returned to Kronstadt only at the end of the summer of 1806.

After this trip, the Russians made 28 circumnavigation of the world. As a result, many islands were discovered, reefs and currents were described, and a lot of material was collected about the islands. Russian sailors enjoyed well-deserved prestige among sailors of other countries.

The expedition was unique in concept and execution F.F. Bellingshausen(1778 - 1852) and M.P. Lazareva(1788 - 1851). Target– conduct research in the southern circumpolar region.

The expedition set out in 1819 on two ships: “Vostok” (Bellingshausen) and “Mirny” (Lazarev) under the general leadership of Bellingshausen. Let us emphasize that their task was only to conduct research. There was no talk of any major discovery. January 28, 1820 the ships approached an unknown continent. This day is recorded in the chronicle of geographical discoveries as discovery day of Antarctica. In addition, 29 more islands were discovered, and Russian names appeared in the southern hemisphere, on the map of the circumpolar region: Peter I Island, Shishkov Island, Alexander I Land, etc. Ships crossed the Antarctic Circle six times and circumnavigated a new continent. The sailors determined the coordinates of the anchorage sites and carried out magnetometric observations. The sea off the coast of Antarctica, a glacier in Antarctica, a cape on Sakhalin, an island in the Tuamotu archipelago are named in honor of Bellingshausen; in honor of Lazarev - an atoll in the Pacific Ocean, a cape in the Amur Bay, an island in the Aral Sea. The journey was described by Bellingshausen in the book: “Twice Explorations in the Southern Arctic Ocean.”

Outstanding naturalists took part in Russian circumnavigation and long-distance voyages in general: O.E. Kotzebue, F.P. Litke, O.S. Makarov, M.N. Miklouho-Maclay, I.M. Semenov. The horizons of Russian natural science have expanded enormously. Russian museums were enriched with precious collections, and many reports were made to the Russian Geographical Society and other places.

2. Scientific geographical schools. By scientific school is meant group of scientists, united common methodology research and common views on the essence of the phenomena being studied, scientists who own similar working methods. We noted that even in Ancient Greece there were schools. But those schools worked according to the scheme: teacher - student. The scientific schools of our time are not at all the same as in Ancient Greece. These are numerous or powerful teams working according to the same plan, consisting of like-minded people. A scientific school cannot exist without a leader who acts as a generator of ideas, the brain and organizing center of the team. But a scientific school is not necessarily an organized team at the place of work (institute, department, department). Scientists can work in different institutions, but ideologically unite around one person (for example, the school of soil climatology - Shulgin A.M.).

The head of a scientific school must not only be a great scientists, but also personality who generously shares her thoughts and knows how to improve the work of other people. Not all outstanding scientists had or have their own scientific schools. We know productive scientific schools of L.D. Landau, E. Rutherford, P.L. Kapitsa (physics). S.P. was an excellent leader. Korolev, who knew how to unite scientists, engineers, and cosmonauts into a single team, passionate about one common idea - space flight.

Favorable conditions are created for the formation of a school in a higher educational institution. A school can also arise around a scientific journal. A permanent expedition studying a large-scale geographical problem can also become the basis for organizing a scientific school.

In geography, scientific schools began to emerge in the 19th century. The first scientific geographical school – school Military Academy General Staff , established in 1832. Here, military geography is studied, that is, the geographical features of individual territories, from the point of view of the possibility of their use for strategic and tactical purposes. In 1856, a geodetic department was formed. We were engaged in surveying the area, studying meteorology, climatology, and mineralogy. Among the teachers, P.A. stood out. Yazykov and D.A. Milyutin. Second scientific school –RGO. The Russian Geographical Society was approved in St. Petersburg in 1945 through the efforts of F.P. Litke, N.I. Arsenyeva, K.M. Bera, V.I. Dalia, I.F. Kruzenshtern. The presidents of the Civil Defense were nominally members of the imperial family, but the entire burden of work was carried on their shoulders by its vice-presidents: first F.P. Litke, then P.P. Semenov - Tian-Shansky.

He especially did a lot for the development of civil defense, for the development of geography, the study of Russia and foreign countries P.P. Semenov (1927 - 1914) - later Semenov - Tian-Shansky. He headed the Russian Geographical Society from 1873 to 1914. He was a naturalist, economist, and field researcher. Geographical research was carried out in Tien Shan. He was the first to survey Lake Issyk-Kul, examined the Trans-Ili Ala-Tau, and the Central Tien-Shan. He was the first European to climb the slopes of the highest peak - Khan Tengri. His expedition explored 23 mountain passes and collected rich collections rocks, insects, mollusks, a wonderful herbarium. As a result, it was found out features of orography and geological structure Tien Shan, Humboldt's opinion about volcanic origin of the Tien Shan . Semenov also studied the features altitudinal zone. He was the first to complete a scientific description of this mountainous country, and for his success in studying it he was called Semenov-Tian-Shansky.

Semenov-Tyan-Shansky wrote the history of the Russian Geographical Society for 50 years (1845 - 1895) and noted that of the four periods of development of the Russian Geographical Society, the most brilliant is the fourth, from 1871-1885 - the period of expeditions of N.M. Przhevalsky. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky headed the central statistical committee, in which the first census of the population of Russia was prepared, economic materials were concentrated, and zoning. The result of Semenov-Tyan-Shansky’s activities in this area was a five-volume dictionary: “Geographical-statistical dictionary Russian Empire"(1863 - 1885).

Semenov-Tyan-Shansky wrote many sections and was the editor of the major publications “Picturesque Russia” and “Russia. A complete geographical description of our Fatherland." These multi-volume works summarize colossal materials on geography. All sections are written according to the same plan, figuratively and accessible to the general reader.

Semenov-Tyan-Shansky very broadly interpreted the science of geography or geography, which included cartography, orography, geology, geognosy (geomorphology), hydrology, hydrography, meteorology, and climatology. But since the “crown” of the planet is man, it is necessary to include anthropology, historical archeology, ethnography, demography, political and historical geography, and statistics (modern economic geography) in science.

Thanks to such broad views of Semenov-Tyan-Shansky on science, the expedition programs of the Russian Geographical Society were distinguished by great scope. This extraordinary person and prominent scientist was able to rally young, brave, educated people, future researchers and famous travelers around GO. Among them is a brilliant constellation of names forever inscribed in the annals of the history of science: N.M. Przhevalsky, and a whole group of his followers, N.A. Severtsov, P.A. Kropotkin, N.N. Miklouho-Maclay, I.M. Mushketov, etc.

N.M. Przhevalsky(1839 - 1888) literally constituted an era in the exploration of Central Asia, making four trips. The results are impressive: I walked more than 30 thousand km through the unexplored spaces of Central Asia, completed route surveys, correctly marked on the map the upper reaches of the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, discovered mountain ranges, and Lake Lop Nor. Przhevalsky collected the richest collections on botany, zoology, conducted meteorological observations, discovered an unknown species - Przhevalsky's wild horse, as well as a species of wild camel. Much attention was paid to the peculiarities of life, way of life, and social relations of the population.

Followers of Przhevalsky - IN AND. Roborovsky, M.V. Pevtsov, P.K. Kozlov, G.N. Potanin, G.E. Grumm-Grzhimajpo– expanded and deepened Przhevalsky’s research in Central Asia.

Thus, the Russian Geographical Society has done an enormous amount to study the hard-to-reach areas of Central Asia, opening it up to Europeans.

Other areas were also explored, in particular, the vast expanses of Siberia and the Far East.

Among the major geographers of Russia stands out P.A. Kropotkin(1842 - 1921), scientist, traveler, revolutionary theorist of anarchism. Scope of it scientific interests was very wide. In 1862 - 1867, he made several expeditions to Eastern Siberia and Manchuria, compiled an orographic diagram of Eastern Siberia and Manchuria, discovered several extinct volcanoes, and studied the Patom and Vitim plateaus. Kropotkin’s main merit is development of the glacial theory, which is widely used nowadays. Based on his observations in Finland, Sweden, and the Patom Highlands, he came to the conclusion that landforms and surface deposits are of glacial origin and, therefore, continental glaciation was widespread in Quaternary times.

A glorious page has been written in historical geography and geology V.A. Obruchev(1863 - 1956). For many years he studied Siberia, Central and Central Asia, and traveled long routes through the Trans-Caspian region. In the person of Obruchev, a major traveler, a discoverer and an outstanding theoretician united.

1) while studying the Kara-Kums, he came to the correct conclusion about their water origin and established that the dry bed of the Uzboy is the bed of the ancient Amu Darya;

2) in Central Asia he discovered six new ranges;

3) substantiated the theory of the aeolian origin of loess;

4) while studying the gold-bearing areas of the Lena River basin, he gave forecast searching for gold placers;

5) while exploring Baikal, came to the conclusion that the formation of its basin was relatively recent.

The results of the work are presented in a fundamental three-volume book: “Geology of Siberia” (1935 - 1938). Since 1947, Obruchev was the honorary president of the USSR Civil Defense. A wide reader knows him well as the author of the science fiction novels “Plutonia”, “Sannikov’s Land”, and the scientific adventure story “In the Wilds of Central Asia”.

The following are named after Kropotkin: a ridge on the Patom Highlands, a ridge and volcano in the Eastern Sayan Mountains, a mountain in Antarctica, a city in the Krasnoyarsk Territory, an embankment, a square and a street in Moscow, a street in St. Petersburg.

The mineral obruchevite, a ridge in Tuva, an oasis in Antarctica, a glacier in the Mongolian Altai, and others are named in honor of Obruchev.

Place of honor in scientific school belongs to the Russian Geographical Society N. N. Miklouho-Maclay(1848 - 1888). His main area of ​​scientific interest is anthropology and ethnography. Miklouho-Maclay gained worldwide fame as primitive explorer, in particular the natives of the Papua tribe. In 1871, he landed on the northeastern coast of the island of New Guinea and lived among the Papuans for 15 months, studying their way of life, language, and customs. In 1874 he settled on the southwestern coast of New Guinea, and in 1880 he explored the southeastern coast of the island. With his humanity and close communication with the natives, Miklouho-Maclay achieved mutual understanding and respect among the Papuans. And although many years have passed, in New Guinea stories about the brave and benevolent Maclay are passed down from generation to generation, and children are named after Maclay.

Miklouho-Maclay brought from the expedition the most valuable materials, sketches, diary entries, and ethnographic collections. Everything is stored in the archives of the Civil Defense and the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography in St. Petersburg. The main merit of Miklouho-Maclay is he proved the position of species unity and kinship of human races, while studying the Melanesian anthropological type of man, repeatedly spoke out in defense of the local population from the colonialists.

The formation of scientific schools, as already indicated, was greatly influenced by higher education educational establishments. Universities played a particularly important role, in which the first departments of geography, geographical faculties, and institutes arose.

3. Third scientific school – D.M. Anuchina at Moscow University. Anuchin (1843 - 1923) was responsible for the creation of the first Department of Geography(1884) at Moscow University. The main object of geography, according to Anuchin, is ground surface. Anuchin took part in a trip to the Caucasus, to the sources of the largest rivers in Russia, for the first time studied Lake Seliger and the group of Upper Volga lakes in detail, determined their depths, drew up maps, and described the shores. Anuchin is rightly considered founder of limnology in Russia. Anuchin owns many works on the history of geography, anthropology, and ethnography. The scientific school of Moscow University is rightly called the Anuchinsky scientific school in geography. Many of his students became outstanding scientists in various fields of geographical science. Many have already created their own schools. This is L.S. Berg, A.A. Borzov, A.S. Barkov, A.A. Cruter, B.F. Dobrynin, I.S. Shchukin, A.N. Javakhishvili, etc.

4. The fourth scientific school is at St. Petersburg University. The second geography department in Russia was formed here. Its head is V.V. Dokuchaev(1846 - 1903). He was at the same time a natural scientist, an excellent organizer of expeditions and a brilliant teacher. Main merit Dokuchaev is to create soil science as an independent science. The basic principles of soil science were illuminated by Dokuchaev in his fundamental work “Russian Chernozem” (1883). He developed a classification of soils and gave them names accepted throughout the world. He created a theory about soils and soil formation factors.

The second major merit of V.V. Dokuchaev is developing teachings about natural zones. Even before Dokuchaev, individual facts of the zonal distribution of climate and vegetation were known, but the law of zonation was not formed as a universal one. Dokuchaev, as a result of expeditions, desk experiments and generalization of materials, obtained original materials on the zonal distribution of soils and generalized data on the distribution of other components of nature. As a result of all this, he was able to outline the essence of zonality: “... thanks to the known position of our planet relative to the Sun, thanks to the rotation of the Earth, its spherical shape, climate, vegetation and animals are distributed over the earth's surface in the direction from north to south, in a strictly defined order - polar , temperate, subtropical, equatorial zones...". His work “On the Doctrine of Natural Zones” has become a reference book.

The third major merit of Dokuchaev is creation of a scientific school, uniting future prominent scientists of our planet. His students: A.N. Krasnov (1862 - 1914) - explored the south of the Russian Plain, the Caucasus, Tien Shan, Altai, and did a lot to acclimatize the tea culture in Russia. In 1912, according to the landscape-geographical principle, he organized the Batumi Botanical Garden, which has a large collection of exotic plants. G.I. Tanfilyev (1857 - 1928) studied the landscapes of the tundra, forest-steppe, Baraba, Crimea, and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. He owns the first scientific physical-geographical zoning of European Russia, in which he used the zonal principle. Author of the four-volume work “Geography”.

The luminary of science V.I. Vernadsky (1863 - 1945) developed fundamentals of biochemistry and the study of the biosphere. Was a general scientist G.N. Vysotsky (1865 – 1940), who approached the solution of practical problems on the basis of a complex geographical method. K.D. Glinka (1867 - 1927) and N.M. Sibirtsev (1860 - 1900) continued Dokuchaev’s work on soil. Glinka in 1908 - 1916 led soil-botanical expeditions in Siberia, Far East, V Central Asia. In 1911 he organized the Main Dokuchaevsky Soil Committee, and subsequently was the first director of the Soil Institute named after. Dokuchaeva. Sibirtsev developed the theory of soil zonation. Together with Tanfilyev, he participated in the compilation of a soil map of European Russia (1900), which was awarded the Great Gold Medal at the Paris Exhibition. Author of the textbook “Soil Science” (1892), where he pays serious attention to the origin of soils.

Glinka's students - L.I. Prasolov , S.S. Neustruev , A.I. Bessonov , - in the future, also major scientists. Thus, we can talk about several generations of Dokuchaev’s followers.

A professor at St. Petersburg University occupies a special and very honorable place in the history of geography. A.I. Voeikov (1842 - 1916). He did not belong to any scientific school, nor did he create his own school. At the same time, his works are extremely relevant. He is founder of climatology. He is the author of the magnificent book “Climates globe, especially Russia" (1884), where he showed the relationship between climate and other natural components. He revealed the physical essence of climate formation processes, and for the first time in geography used the method of balances (for example, the balance of moisture in the air, the balance of water in glaciers). He is actually the founder agricultural meteorology, agroclimatology. Voeikov’s ideas about the human impact on nature are very modern. Let us give as an example the titles of some of his works: “Land improvements and their relationships with climate and other natural conditions”, “Man and water: methods of using water and their geographical distribution", "Man and the Sands", "Cotton Growing and Climate", etc. Voinov was a man of enormous talent and colossal capacity for work. Suffice it to say that he wrote 1,700 books and articles. Paying tribute to the primacy of climate, Voeikov skillfully used complex geographical methods, and is rightfully considered one of the outstanding geographers of the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Summing up the development of geography in XIX beginning XX centuries, we can say that during this period it was quite got stronger, in it separate industries appeared, formed scientific schools. D.N. is rightfully considered the founders of physical geography. Anuchin, V.V. Dokuchaev and A.I. Voeikov. The situation with economic geography is more complicated. The merits of Semenov Tian-Shansky in the development of geography, including economic geography, which in the past was called statistics, have already been noted here.

Ministry of Education of the Republic of Belarus

Educational institution "Vitebsk State University"

named after P.M. Masherov"

Faculty of Biology

Department of Geography

1-31 02 01-02 03 Geography (scientific and pedagogical activities)

Course work

Geographical ideas scientists of the ancient world

Koteleva Liliya Sergeevna,

1st year student, group 13

Supervisor:

Kurdin Sergey Ivanovich

Senior Lecturer

Department of Geography

Vitebsk, 2014

Coursework p. 25, fig. 9, sources 19.

History, geography, scientists, Ancient world, discoveries.

The object of research is the ideas of scientists of the ancient world.

The subject of the study is ancient scientists and their contribution to geography.

The purpose of the work is to study the history of the emergence of geography and the ideas of scientists of the ancient world.

Research methods: descriptive.

Elements of novelty: the need to study the history of the origin of geography as a science has been identified.

Theoretical and practical significance: the results of the study can be used to expand knowledge in the development of the history of geography as a science.

Introduction

1.1 Geography as philosophy

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Primitive man was already distinguished by keen observation and even the ability to make drawings of the area on skins, birch bark, and wood - prototypes of geographical maps. The primitive map as a way of transmitting geographic information arose long before the emergence of writing. Already at the very early stages of his economic activity, primitive man entered into complex interactions with the natural environment. Research by archaeologists has shown that already at the end of the Paleolithic (ancient Stone Age), man destroyed the bulk of large mammals within the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere, thereby causing a kind of “first environmental crisis” in the history of our planet, and was forced to move from gathering and hunting to agriculture.

The beginnings of scientific geographical knowledge arose during the period of the slave system, which replaced the primitive communal system and was characterized by more high level productive forces. The first division of society into classes arises and the first slave states are formed: China, India, Phenicia, Babylonia, Assyria, Egypt. During this period, people began to use metal tools and use irrigation in agriculture; Cattle breeding developed on a large scale, crafts appeared, and the exchange of goods between different peoples expanded significantly. All this required good knowledge of the area.

During this period, writing appeared, which made it possible to record and systematize accumulated knowledge. The oldest monuments of Chinese writing

India is also the oldest center of culture. The written monuments of the ancient Hindus, the so-called “Vedas,” dating back to the 2nd millennium BC, in addition to religious hymns, contain information about the peoples who lived in India and about the nature of these areas.

The ancient Hindus had a good calendar. In treatises on astronomy dating back to the 6th century. AD, it is already indicated that the Earth rotates on its axis and that the Moon borrows its light from the Sun.

The Sumerian culture was inherited by the ancient Babylonians, who founded their own state, which existed until the 7th century. BC, in the middle reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

The Phoenicians, who lived on the Mediterranean coast, were the most daring sailors of the ancient world. Their main occupation was maritime trade, which was carried out throughout the Mediterranean world and captured the western (Atlantic) coast of Europe.

The Egyptians quite accurately determined the length of the year and introduced a solar calendar.

1. Geographical ideas of ancient scientists

1.1 Geography as philosophy

Geography, like all other sciences of the ancient world, developed initially within philosophy. Philosophers viewed the world as a natural unity, and all human activities as one of the manifestations of things. Man united with nature and became involved in it. At the same time, the idea of ​​humanizing nature and giving it human traits was expressed in mythological form. Geographical ideas were associated with a unified geography, which studies undivided space using the descriptive method. The regional direction in the development of geography was descriptive. The greatest successes were achieved by the ancient Greeks, who were able to use the abstraction method to operate not only with empirical data, but also with their ideal images (models), which allowed the emergence of scientific knowledge in Ancient Greece. At the same time, this did not happen in Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China, Central and South America with high culture.

Geography arose in ancient times in connection with the practical activities of people - hunting, fishing, nomadic cattle breeding, primitive agriculture. Circle of factual knowledge primitive man determined by the nature of his activities and the immediate natural environment. The ability to navigate in space is also closely related to observation.

Keen observation and good knowledge of individual facts were combined with underdeveloped thinking. Hence the inability to explain many natural processes and phenomena (droughts, earthquakes, floods, etc.), which was expressed in animism (the idea of ​​spirits and souls) and magic (witchcraft, sorcery, witchcraft). Primitive man's idea of ​​the origin of things was inevitably fantastic and was passed down orally from generation to generation. It took the form of myths, i.e. folk tales about gods and legendary heroes, about the origin of the world.

The first large slave states appeared in the 4th millennium BC. among the agricultural peoples of Asia Minor, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Northern India and China. Their formation was facilitated by the location along large rivers (irrigation sources and waterways) and reliable natural boundaries - mountains and deserts. The first written documents that have survived to this day were created. Travel occupied an important place in the literary epic. Thus, the ancient Sumerian epic poem about Gilgamesh (3rd millennium BC) tells about the wanderings of a hero who reached the ocean through deserts and mountains.

The main trips were made for the purpose of trade and conquering new lands.

The ancient Greeks had an unusually complete and clear understanding of the world. There was Space, Heaven, the gods lived there. People lived on Earth. But there was no gap between them. The gods were like people. They could drink and commit adultery, but they were always ready to interfere in people's destinies. The early Greeks' idea of ​​the Earth was religious and mythological. The Earth, in the form of a convex shield, was surrounded by the Ocean, from which all the rivers flowed. Beyond the Ocean was the kingdom of shadows. It was warmer in eastern countries than in western ones. They were closer to the Sun.

During the archaic stage of the development of Ancient Greece, the center of scientific thought was Miletus (an Ionian colony in Asia Minor), where the first natural philosophical school arose. The followers of this school tried to explain the structure of the Universe by natural causes, based on complete picture world, a single material principle: air in Anaximenes, water in Thales, “apeiron” or abstract matter in Anaximander, fire in Heraclitus.

However, the interpretation of natural phenomena among the Ionian natural philosophers was speculative. Earthquakes, for example, they explained as a consequence of the cracking of the earth from drought or after heavy rains.

1.2 History of the origin of geography as a science

Among the geographical ideas of the ancient world inherited by modern geography, special meaning have the views of ancient scientists. Ancient (Greco-Roman) geography reached its peak in Ancient Greece and Rome in the period from the 12th century. BC. to 146 AD This was due to the fact that Greece’s position on the routes from Western Asia to the southern and western Mediterranean countries put it in very favorable conditions for trade relations, and, consequently, for the accumulation of geographical knowledge.

The earliest written documents of the Greeks are the epic poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey” attributed to Homer, the recording of which dates back to the 8th-7th centuries. BC, but the events described in them took place approximately in the 16th-12th centuries. BC. From these poems one can get an idea of ​​the geographical knowledge of the era.

The Greeks imagined the Earth as an island shaped like a convex shield. They knew well the countries adjacent to the Aegean Sea, but had vague ideas about more remote areas. However, they knew the large rivers of the Mediterranean-Black Sea basin: Rion (Phasis), Danube (Ister), Po (Padue), etc.; and they also had some information about Africa and about the nomadic peoples who lived north of Greece.

In ancient Greece, attempts were made to compile geographical maps of the territory known at that time. The Greeks also tried to explain various natural phenomena from the point of view of natural science theories.

The Greek thinker Parmenides (5th century BC) (Fig. 1) put forward the idea that the Earth is spherical. However, he came to this conclusion not through experimental data, but based on his philosophy of perfect forms.

Aristotle (Fig. 2) wrote many works of geographical content. One of the works is “Meteorology” - the pinnacle of the geographical science of antiquity.

In particular, it examines the issue of the water cycle with the participation of evaporation from the surface of reservoirs, cooling with the formation of clouds and precipitation. The precipitation forms streams and rivers, large of which are formed in burrows. Rivers carry their waters to the seas in a volume equal to the amount of evaporated water. This is the reason why sea levels are stable. There is constant opposition between sea and land, which is why in some places the sea destroys the coast, in others new land is formed. On this occasion, Aristotle writes the following: “And since the sea always recedes in one place and advances in another, it is clear that throughout the entire Earth, sea and land do not remain by themselves, but over time one turns into the other.”

Aristotle concluded that there is a constant flow of water from the Sea of ​​Azov towards the Mediterranean. Aristotle talked about “dry” evaporation, heat belts and winds, as a result of uneven heating of the earth’s surface. He gave a description of the 12-pointed wind rose. Aristotle wrote about earthquakes, thunder, lightning, hurricanes and other natural phenomena, as well as the reason for their formation. He wrote the book "Politics", which talked about the influence of various natural factors on human behavior. This was later called “geographical determinism.” Aristotle said that the state of nature has a significant impact on the level of development of the state.

The state of nature, according to Aristotle, also influences the level of development of statehood: “Peoples living in countries with cold climates and in northern Europe are full of courageous character, but their intellectual life and artistic interests are less developed. Therefore, they retain their freedom longer, but they are not capable of state life and cannot dominate their neighbors.On the contrary, the peoples inhabiting Asia are very intellectual and have artistic taste, but they lack courage; therefore they live in a subordinate and servile state.

The Hellenic people, geographically occupying a sort of middle place between the inhabitants of northern Europe and Asia, combine the natural properties of both; she has both a courageous character and developed intelligence; therefore she maintains her freedom, enjoys the best government organization and would be able to rule over everyone if only it were united by one state system."

The works of the Greek scientist Herodotus (484-425 BC) had a very great influence on the development of geography (Fig. 3).

The works were created based on his personal research and travels. Herodotus visited and described Egypt, Libya, Phenicia, Palestine, Arabia, Babylonia, Persia, the nearest part of India, Media, the shores of the Caspian and Black Seas, Scythia (the southern part of the European territory of the USSR) and Greece. His extensive work, created in the 5th century BC, did not immediately receive the title “History in Nine Books”. It was named so only two or three centuries after the death of the scientist. His book was divided into nine parts in the Library of Alexandria - according to the number of muses (as the parts of the book were named).

This work tells about the Greco-Persian wars, and about distant lands, about many peoples, and about various customs and the art of people from different countries. Herodotus's "History" is a generalizing geographical and historical work and one of the most important monuments of travel and discovery of the Earth. The books talk about his travels by land and sea. The fourth book contains two characteristic fragments. The first of them describes the Borysthenes River - as Herodotus called the Dnieper. Herodotus says that the region of the Scythian farmers extended along the Borysthenes [Dnieper] for ten days' sailing. His ideas about the lands located upstream of the Borysthenes are vague. Herodotus also sailed along the Pontus Equinas (Black Sea), visited Olbia - an ancient Greek city on the shores of the Dnieper-Bug estuary; visited the vicinity of Olbia, saw the northern Black Sea region. From the description of the Dnieper, we can conclude that he collected information about the middle Dnieper region; Only the area of ​​the upper reaches of the Dnieper remained unknown to him. Herodotus reports on an expedition around Africa.

The name Africa itself appeared much later; in Herodotus’s descriptions Africa is called “Libya”: “Libya turns out to be surrounded by water, with the exception of the part where it borders on Asia; the first to prove this, as far as we know, was the Egyptian king Necho” - these lines begin short message about an amazing swim. It further tells how Necho instructed the Phoenician navigators to sail around Libya by sea: “...He sent the Phoenicians on ships to the sea [the Red Sea] with orders to sail back through the Pillars of Hercules [Strait of Gibraltar] until they entered the northern sea and arrived to Egypt, the Phoenicians sailed from the Erythraean Sea and entered the southern sea.

When autumn came, they landed on the shore, and, no matter where they landed in Libya, they sowed the land and waited for the harvest; After harvesting the grain, they sailed on. So two years passed on the voyage; and only in the third year did they round the Pillars of Hercules and return to Egypt. They also said, which I don’t believe, but someone else might believe, that while sailing around Libya, the Phoenicians had the sun on the right side. This is how Libya became known for the first time."

The above lines are the only news about sailing, which apparently had no analogues in antiquity and the Middle Ages. In the works of geographers of different eras - from the ancients, who mostly doubted the reality of navigation or even categorically denied its possibility, to modern ones, whose opinions differ - there are many different statements.

The basic geographical sciences also originated in ancient Greece. Already by the 6th century. BC. the needs of navigation and trade necessitated descriptions of land and seashores. At the turn of the 6th century. BC. Hecataeus from Miletus compiled a description of the Oikumene - all the countries known to the ancient Greeks at that time. “Description of the Earth” by Hecataeus marked the beginning of the formation of the regional studies direction in geography. In the era of “classical Greece,” the most prominent representative of regional studies was Herodotus. His travels did not lead to the discovery of new lands, but contributed to the accumulation of more complete and reliable facts and the development of descriptive and regional studies in science. The science of classical Greece found its completion in the works of Aristotle, who founded in 335. BC. philosophical school - Lyceum in Athens. Almost everything that was known about geographical phenomena at that time was set out in Aristotle's Meteorology. This work represents the beginnings of general geoscience, which were isolated by Aristotle from the undivided geographical science.

The Hellenistic era (330-146 BC) dates back to the emergence of a new geographical direction, which later received the name of mathematical geography. One of the first representatives of this trend was Eratosthenes (276-1194 BC) (Fig. 4).

He was the first to quite accurately determine the size of the circumference of the globe by measuring the meridian arc (the measurement error was no more than 10%). Eratosthenes owns a large work called “Geographical Notes”, using the term “Geography” for the first time. The book gives a description of the Oikumene, and also discusses issues of mathematical and physical geography (general geoscience). Thus, Eratosthenes united three directions into one, called “geography”. This is why he is considered the “father” of geographical science.

Half a century after Eratosthenes, the terms “geographical latitude” and “geographical longitude” were introduced by the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus, who invented the astrolabe and continued Eratosthenes’ research on what all this meant for the history of the discovery of the Earth, said with great expressiveness in the “History of Geography” K Ritter, although his figurative assessment of the merits of these two scientists of the ancient world is somewhat hyperbolic.

K. Ritter writes that “few inventions had a more beneficial influence on the fate of sciences and the welfare of peoples than those associated with the names of Eratosthenes and Hipparchus... From then on, the navigator could find his way back and forth in seas not yet visited, and depict it for posterity. The caravan could reach the goal of its journey along hitherto unknown paths, through the desert or a whole part of the world, to unknown countries. From then on, only posterity could take advantage of the geographical discoveries of their ancestors. The so often forgotten or obscured position of lands and areas could now easily be found using a given figure and latitude and longitude."

Not everything in this statement is indisputable. It overemphasizes the previous difficulties in determining the locations of lands and the ease of these determinations after Eratosthenes. However, even one and a half thousand years after the great geographers and astronomers of antiquity, travelers still did not have accurate methods for determining geographic longitude. This is precisely what is associated with the often repeated searches for “enchanted islands”, which either appeared, then again eluded the discoverers and, accordingly, disappeared from the map.

However, K. Ritter had every reason to single out the inventions of Eratosthenes and Hipparchus as significant in the history of human knowledge of the Earth. The modern network of geographic coordinates originates from a simple network on a map drawn by Eratosthenes. And in the writings of travelers, in the descriptions of new lands in the ship's journals of seafarers, numbers gradually take their place, changing many times along the way, numbers that cartographers eagerly await, degrees and minutes geographical latitude and longitude.

Eratosthenes' "Geography" has not survived to this day. Its content has come to us through separate excerpts, through the presentation of the opinions of a scientist and short reviews his writings, which can be found among ancient scholars, especially Strabo (Fig. 5).

“Geography” summarizes the history of knowledge about the Earth, it talks about the size of the inhabited land, about individual countries that were known to the Greeks at the turn of the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC.

Following Aristotle and other scientists who support the idea of ​​the spherical shape of the Earth, Eratosthenes proceeds in his reasoning, as well as in his famous measurement of the size of the Earth, from the fact that the Earth is spherical. The statement of Eratosthenes is connected with this, the meaning and importance of which became clearly clear one and a half thousand years later: “If the vastness of the Atlantic Sea had not prevented us, it would have been possible to sail from Iberia [ Iberian Peninsula] to India along the same parallel circle."

"Geography", or "Geography in Seventeen Books" - under such a laconic title, Strabo's work was published countless times during the two thousand years that have passed since the time when it was written. Little is known about Strabo. He was a historian and geographer, visited different countries of the Mediterranean, wrote briefly about his travels in Geography, just a few phrases, in order to explain which lands he saw himself and which he knew from other people’s descriptions.

Strabo's work contains the most detailed collection of geographical knowledge of the ancient Greeks and Romans about the world. Eight books of "Geographies" are dedicated to European countries, six books to Asian countries and one book to African countries. "The Geography of Strabo" - the prototype of later regional studies books - does not, of course, belong to the literature of travel, but like the work of Herodotus, it also includes some valuable reports for science about remarkable travels of antiquity.

From Strabo we learn, for example, about the voyages of Eudoxus. Strabo himself did not believe the information about this voyage. He borrowed them from Posidonius, a historian and philosopher of the 1st century BC, whose geographical judgments are known mainly from Strabo. Having outlined the story of Posidonius, Strabo reproaches him for his fiction: “... this whole story is not particularly far from the inventions of Pytheas, Euhemerus and Antiphanes. Those people can still be excused, just as we forgive magicians for their inventions, because this is their specialty. But who can forgive this Posidonius, a man very skilled in proof and a philosopher. This turned out unsuccessfully for Posidonius."

The above lines are unfair to both Pytheas and Posidodonius. But the merit of Strabo is that he considered it necessary to place in his book a story that seemed implausible to him. This is what is now known thanks to this about one of the oldest voyages to India, completed in the 2nd century. BC. by a certain Eudoxus from Cyzicus (an island in the Sea of ​​Marmara).

Strabo writes: “Eudoxus, as the story goes, arrived in Egypt during the reign of Euergetes II; he was introduced to the king and his ministers and talked with them, especially regarding travel up the Nile... Meanwhile, the story continues, some Indian at that time was accidentally delivered to the king by the coast guard from the very hollow of the Arabian Gulf. Those who delivered the Indian said that they found him half-dead alone on a ship that had run aground; who he was and where he came from, they did not know, since they did not understand his language. The king handed the Indian over to the people, who were to teach him the Greek language. Having learned Greek, the Indian said that, while sailing from India, he accidentally lost his course and, having lost his companions, who died of hunger, eventually reached Egypt safely. Since this story was received by the king with doubt, he promised to be a guide to the persons appointed by the king to sail to India. Among these persons was Eudoxus. Thus, Eudoxus sailed to India with gifts and returned with a cargo of incense and precious stones...".

Eudoxus' travels and adventures did not end there. The goods he brought were taken from him by King Everget, and after the death of Everget, he had the chance to set sail again to India, this time at the behest of Cleopatra. On the way back, the ship was carried by the winds to the south of Ethiopia.

The third voyage was unsuccessful. Regardless of this, the message that Eudoxus took to the open sea using constant winds is very important. It can be assumed that already on his first voyage to India, he learned from the “guide” - an Indian - about the monsoons of the Indian Ocean and how a ship should sail on the open sea with the help of these winds.

Travel from Greece and Egypt to India had been made before, long before Eudoxus. But such journeys - more by land than by sea - lasted a long time, about two years, and were an exceptional and difficult undertaking. And the monsoon helped the ship not to stay close to the shore, to cross the ocean and make the whole journey in a month or two.

Trade ships of the Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians increasingly set off along the sea route blazed by Eudoxus’ expedition. In the 1st century AD Even a detailed reference book for sailors was written in Egypt - “Periplus of the Erythraean Sea”, that is, “Navigation on the Indian Ocean”. In it we find a brief mention of the Greek navigator Hippala, who “discovered” sailing to India “directly across the sea.” Nowadays it is difficult to establish definitively whether there is a connection between this mention and the story given in Strabo’s book about the travels of Eudoxus. Some modern researchers believe that Hippalus was a participant in the first voyage to India, which was made by Eudoxus. But the main content of Strabo's "Geography" lies in detailed systematic descriptions of countries known to scientists of the ancient world.

A number of works that relate to geography were written by the materialist philosopher Democritus (Fig. 6).

He traveled a lot and compiled a map on the basis of which later maps were built. Democritus posed a number of geographical problems that were subsequently dealt with by many scientists: measuring the land area known at that time; measuring the entire area of ​​the Earth, studying the influence of climate on the organic world of the planet.

Rome became the heir to the cultural conquests of Greece and Alexandria. The greatest ancient scientist of Roman origin is called Gaius Pliny Secundus the Elder (23-79) (Fig. 7), the author of “Natural History” in 37 books - encyclopedias of natural science knowledge of his time, compiled on the basis of the works of two thousand authors, Greek and Roman.

When describing, Pliny paid special attention to quantitative indicators. Here is a fragment from the “Natural History” regarding the Sea of ​​​​Azov: “Some say that the Meotian lake itself, receiving the Tanais River, which flows from the Rhipaean mountains and is the extreme border between Europe and Asia, extends in a circumference of 1406 miles, others - 1125 miles. It is known that the direct route from its mouth to the mouth of the Tanais is 275 miles."

Pliny notes the length and width of the Kerch Strait, names settlements on its banks. The peoples living in a particular area, their customs and occupations are listed everywhere. Also. Pliny knew of the "Nile Marshes", an area located south of a strip of desert inhabited by elephants, rhinoceroses and pygmies.

One of the greatest experts on the philosophical heritage of the Ionians and Epicureans was the famous scientist and poet Titus Lucretius Carus (99-55 BC) (Fig. 8). His poem "The Nature of Things" is an attempt to consider and explain all natural phenomena from the Universe to living organisms, to understand the secrets of birth, human thought and soul.

One of the greatest experts on the philosophical heritage of the Ionians and Epicureans was the famous scientist and poet Titus Lucretius Carus (99-55 BC). His poem "The Nature of Things" is an attempt to consider and explain all natural phenomena from the Universe to living organisms, to understand the secrets of birth, human thought and soul.

As A.B. writes Ditmar, “the poem consists of six books. The first and second give the doctrine of the eternity and boundlessness of the Universe, the doctrine of atoms and their properties, the doctrine of the eternity of motion. The third and fourth speak of the unity of soul and body and of sensory sensations as a source of knowledge "The fifth and sixth books describe the world as a whole, individual phenomena and the causes that give rise to them, and give an idea of ​​animals and humans, religion and social activities."

In nature, everything changes, arises, decays, and is created again. All things in their decomposition return to the state of primary matter in order to again take part in natural transformations. “If I see that the members and parts of the great world perish, then are born again, it means that our earth and the firmament also had a beginning and are destined to perish.”

For Lucretius, evolution and the acquisition of new properties is a self-evident property of matter. All this happens without the participation of the gods and without prior expediency. Lucretius concerns the origin of the Earth, various meteorological phenomena, the water cycle, the causes of thunder and lightning, earthquakes and many other phenomena.

Thus, Roman scientists created generalizing geographical works in which they tried to show all the diversity of the world they knew. The largest works of this type include the book by Pomponius Mela (1st century) “On the Position of the Earth”, or “On Chorography”.

As V.T. points out. Bogucharovsky, “Pomponius systematized information from the works of Herodotus, Eratosthenes, Hipparchus and other predecessor scientists. The description of the territories was not accompanied by significant original theoretical calculations. Pomponius divided the earth into five climatic zones: hot, two cold and two temperate and supported the hypothesis of the existence of a southern inhabited belt inhabited by "antichthons" (anti-living)."

The campaigns and wars of the Romans provided a lot of material for geography, but the processing of this material was carried out mainly by Greek scientists. The largest of them are Strabo and Ptolemy.

The mathematician and geographer Claudius Ptolemy (Fig. 9), Greek by origin, lived in Egypt in the first half of the 2nd century. AD

His greatest work was the creation of the “world system,” which dominated science for more than a thousand years. Ptolemy's geographical views are expressed in the book "Geographical Guide". He builds his geography on purely mathematical principles, first of all indicating the geographical definition of latitude and longitude of each place.

Ptolemy had more significant geographical material than Strabo. In his works, as M. Golubchik writes, “one can find information about the Caspian Sea, the Volga River (Ra) and the Kama River (Eastern Ra). When describing Africa, he dwells in detail on the sources of the Nile, and his description is in many ways similar With the latest research" .

The works of Ptolemy summed up all the geographical knowledge of the ancient world, which was quite large. Geographers most developed countries Western Europe until the 15th century added almost nothing to the geographical knowledge that the Greeks and Romans had before the 3rd century. From the given examples of the most important geographical works of antiquity, two paths of development of geography are already outlined with sufficient clarity. The first way is a description of individual countries (Herodotus, Strabo). The second way is a description of the entire Earth as a single whole (Eratosthenes, Ptolemy). These two main paths in geography have survived to this day.

Thus, during the era of the slave system, significant geographical knowledge was accumulated. The main achievements of this period were the establishment of the spherical shape of the Earth and the first measurements of its size, the writing of the first major geographical works and the compilation of geographical maps, and, finally, the first attempts to give a scientific explanation physical phenomena happening on Earth.

As a result of a theoretical analysis of the literature, it was revealed that the first large slave states appeared in the 4th millennium BC. among the agricultural peoples of Asia Minor, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Northern India and China. Their formation was facilitated by the location along large rivers (irrigation sources and waterways) and reliable natural boundaries - mountains and deserts. The first written documents were created, which give ancient ideas about the geographical knowledge of peoples ancient East, describes a known part of the Earth, contains brief descriptions territory of the state, etc.

In the ancient world, two paths for the development of geography are outlined. The first way is a description of individual countries (Herodotus, Strabo). The second way is a description of the entire Earth as a single whole (Eratosthenes, Ptolemy).

Conclusion

geography antiquity philosopher map

For the primitive communal system and slave states, the tasks of geography were reduced to expanding spatial horizons and accumulating empirical material. A person’s worldview was formed in the space of his residence.

The study of geography was based on the concept of “place”, etc. a piece of land that forms the properties of topophilia and topophobia in a person, i.e. ideas about good and bad places, good and bad hunting, friendly and bad people. Geography arose in ancient times in connection with the practical activities of people - hunting, fishing, nomadic cattle breeding, primitive agriculture. The range of factual knowledge of primitive man was determined by the nature of his activity and the immediate natural environment. The ability to navigate in space is also closely related to observation.

Keen observation and good knowledge of individual facts were combined with underdeveloped thinking. Hence the inability to explain many natural processes and phenomena (droughts, earthquakes, floods, etc.), which was expressed in animism (the idea of ​​spirits and souls) and magic (witchcraft, sorcery, witchcraft). Primitive man's idea of ​​the origin of things was inevitably fantastic and was passed down orally from generation to generation. It took the form of myths, i.e. folk tales about gods and legendary heroes, about the origin of the world. Already in 3 thousand BC. e. V Ancient Egypt Expeditions were prepared to the center of Africa, along the Mediterranean and Red Seas. The settlement of peoples, wars and trade expanded people's knowledge of the surrounding spaces and developed the skills of orientation by the Sun, Moon and stars.

The dependence of agriculture and cattle breeding on river floods and other periodic natural phenomena determined the appearance of the calendar. In the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. e. representatives of the Harappan civilization (in the territory of modern Pakistan) discovered the monsoons. Elements of geography are contained in the sacred ancient Indian books: in the Vedas an entire chapter is devoted to cosmology, in the Mahabharata you can find a list of oceans, mountains, and rivers. Already IX-VIII centuries BC. e. In ancient China, when choosing a place to build a fortress, maps of suitable sites were drawn up. In the 3rd century BC. e. works appear entirely devoted to geography, a compass and a device for measuring distance, and the “Regional Atlas” of China. Geography, like all other sciences of the ancient world, developed initially within philosophy. Philosophers viewed the world as a natural unity, and all human activities as one of the manifestations of things. Man united with nature and became involved in it.

At the same time, the idea of ​​humanizing nature and giving it human traits was expressed in mythological form. Geographical ideas were associated with a unified geography, which studies undivided space using the descriptive method. The regional direction in the development of geography was descriptive. The explanation had a religious-mythological, and then a natural-philosophical basis, a speculative interpretive nature. It was based on a geocentric understanding of the universe. At the same time, some speculative ideas were expressed (about the sphericity of the Earth and its spheres, the dependence of man on nature), which “illuminated” the path of development of geography for many centuries.

A unique method of empirical generalizations and transmission of geoinformation—cartographic—has also emerged. Ancient Mediterranean geography The pre-Socratic philosophical tradition has already given rise to many prerequisites for the emergence of geography. Anaximander proposed that the Earth was shaped like a cylinder, and made the revolutionary assumption that people should also live on the other side of the “cylinder”. He also published individual geographical works.

In the 4th century. BC e. -- V century n. e. ancient encyclopedist scientists tried to create a theory about the origin and structure of the surrounding world, to depict the countries known to them in the form of drawings. The results of these researches were the speculative idea of ​​the Earth as a sphere (Aristotle), the creation of maps and plans, the determination of geographic coordinates, the introduction of parallels and meridians, and cartographic projections. Crates of Mallus, a Stoic philosopher, studied the structure of the globe and created a model of the globe, suggesting how the weather conditions of the northern and southern hemispheres should relate.

"Geography" in 8 volumes of Claudius Ptolemy contained information about more than 8000 geographical names and coordinates of almost 400 points. Eratosthenes of Cyrene was the first to measure the meridian arc and estimate the size of the Earth; the term “geography” (land description) also belongs to him.

Strabo was the founder of regional studies, geomorphology and paleogeography. Aristotle's works set out the foundations of hydrology, meteorology, oceanology and outlined the division of geographical sciences.

Bibliography

1. Ancient geography / comp. M.S. Bodnarsky. - M.: Mysl, 1953. - 360 p.

2. Ancient geography of the Mediterranean: electronic resource http: // www.mgeograf.ru.

3. Aristotle. Collected works. In 4 volumes: volume 3. Meteorology. - M.: Mysl, 1981. - 374 p.

4. Bezrukov Yu.F. Physical geography of continents and oceans in questions and answers. In 2 hours. Part 1. Eurasia and the World Ocean. - Simferopol: TNU named after. IN AND. Vernadsky, 2005. - 196 p.

5. Bogucharovsky V.T. History of geography / V.T. Bogucharovsky. - M.: Academic project, 2006. - 500 p.

6. Brown L.A. History of geographical maps / L.A. Brown. - M.: Tsentropoligraf, 2006. - 480 p.

7. Vavilova E.V. Economic and social geography of the world / E.V. Vavilova. - M.: Gardariki, 2006. - 469 p.

8. Herodotus. History in nine books / Herodotus. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2005. - 274 p.

9. Gilenso B.A. History of ancient literature. At 2 p.m. Part 1. / B.A. Gilenson. - M.: Academic project, 2009. - 270 p.

10. Golubchik, M. History of geography / M. Golubchik, S. Evdokimov, G. Maksimov. - M.: SSU. - 2006. - 224 p.

11. Democritus: electronic resource: http: // eternaltown.com.ua/ content/ view.

12. James P. All possible worlds: the history of geographical ideas / P. James / ed. A.G. Isachenko. - M.: Gardariki, 2006. - 320 p.

13. Ditmar A.B. From Scythia to Elephantine. Life and travels of Herodotus / A.B. Ditmar. - M.: Nauka, 2004. - 206 p.

14. Ivanova N.V. Physical geography: guidelines/ N.V. Ivanova. - Samara: Samara Municipal Institute of Management, 2006. - 40 p.

15. Isachenko A.G. Development of geographical ideas / A.G. Isachenko. - M.: Education, 1989. - 276 p.

16. History Ancient Rome: electronic resource: #"justify">. Kuznetsov V.I. Ancient China / V.I. Kuznetsov. - M. Ast-press, 2008. - 210 p.

17. Maksakovsky V.P. Historical geography of the world / V.P. Maksakovsky. - M.: Academy, 2005. - 474 p.

18. Orlyonok V.V. Physical geography / V.V. Eaglet. - M.: Gardariki, 2009. - 480 p.

19. Electronic resource http://ponimai.su/cmspage

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PRACTICAL WORK No. 1

TOPIC: Main stages in the development of geography and geographical science

Target: study the stages of development of geography and geographical science; shape the development of geographical ideas.

Issues for discussion:

1. Definition of geography, its object and subject, tasks and functions.
2. The concept of the geographical envelope and the geographical environment of the Earth.

3. Geography of ancient times.
4. Age of Discovery
5. Geography of the Middle Ages
6. Geography of modern times

Practical task No. 1:

1. Fill out the table.

Development of geography

MAIN STAGES OF GEOGRAPHY DEVELOPMENT

AND GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE

1. Geographical knowledge of primitive peoples

We find the beginnings of geographical knowledge among primitive peoples (rock paintings, transmission of information by word of mouth, etc.).

Necessity forced primitive people to acquire geographical knowledge. First of all, it was knowledge about the location of individual territories. This knowledge was used for economic purposes. For example, hunters needed to know and find places rich in game, fishermen needed places rich in fish, etc.

When people took up productive activities - cattle breeding, agriculture - the importance of geographical knowledge increased. Man began to appreciate the terrain more fully, especially when he began farming. At first, agriculture was slash-and-burn - the forest was burned, and fields appeared in its place. The soil lost fertility (over time). As a result, the person moved to a new place. Thus, significant areas of forest were burned in the tropical zone and in the temperate zone.

The places of old cuttings were remembered, and information about them was passed on to descendants. All farmers knew well the places where they could build a new field. Representatives of primitive peoples were noted for their subtle

observation skills, well oriented in space. The famous Russian traveler and writer V.K. Arsenyev characterizes his companion, the goldfish Dersu Uzal, as follows: “What was incomprehensible to me seemed simple and clear to him. Sometimes he noticed traces where, with all the desire to see something, I saw nothing. And he saw that a herd of mother red deer and a one-year-old calf had passed by. They plucked the leaves of the meadowsweet, then quickly ran away, obviously afraid of something. There were no secrets for this amazing man.”

Miklouho Mak-lai N.N. repeatedly noted the great powers of observation of the primitive peoples.

One has to marvel at how the inhabitants of Oceania swam across open areas of the ocean only by following the stars. Famous scientist Thor Heyerdahl

repeated individual routes of ancient sailors. Thus, the great traveler and writer proved that navigation is possible even in the most unfavorable circumstances.

Geographical Ideas of the Ancient World

The centers of ancient civilization include: in the east Babylonia (in the south, the interfluve of the Tigris and Euphrates, in the north - Assyria), Egypt and Ancient China; in the west - Ancient Rome, Ancient Greece.

Science, as a form of human activity, arose in ancient Greece in the 6th - 5th centuries BC. Ancient Greek scientists looked at nature as a whole.

The main method of science at that time was logical analysis, which allowed ancient ancient scientists to make many remarkable conclusions that anticipated the scientific discoveries of modern times.

Sphericality of the Earth Thales was recognized in the 7th century BC, Pythagoras and his school in the 6th - 5th centuries BC, and in 384 - 322 BC Aristotle scientifically substantiated the idea of ​​sphericity. And this was the greatest achievement of that time.

From the idea of ​​sphericity follows the closely related idea of geographical zonation. The Syrian Posidonshy (II - I centuries BC) identified nine geographical zones or zones (we now distinguish thirteen zones). Strabo (died in the 20s AD), a remarkable geographer, believed that there are five geographical belts or zones on the spherical Earth. Scientists of antiquity believed that the middle zone was uninhabited due to the heat and did not advise sailing from the northern hemisphere to the southern.

Of the specific geographical sciences, she achieved success earlier than others cartography. The most perfect ancient world map was compiled by Ptolemy (2nd century BC). It was reprinted several times in the Middle Ages. Pretty accurate circumference of the earth was calculated by Eratosthenes (276 - 194 BC). The term belongs to him "geography".

Geographical information is of great interest ancient

Chinese. They knew how to draw maps, knew the properties of the magnetic needle, reached the Pacific Ocean (1000 years BC), sailed the marginal seas, and discovered the Japanese islands. Long before our era, the Chinese had the correct ideas for those times about the geographical features of Asia, and compiled unique descriptions and maps.

Founder analytical direction Aristotle is rightly considered in physical geography. His great work “Meteorology”. Here he singles out the atmosphere as a single whole, including both the air and water shells. He is recognized as the founder of hydrology, meteorology, and oceanology. Eratostheus is called the father of geography. Mainly because he compiled a fairly accurate map of the Earth, drawing parallels and meridians on it. They were allocated this way

called “climates” - latitudinal bands with different day lengths. An attempt was made to divide the Earth into physical-geographical stripes - sphagrides.

In addition, it was Eratosthenes who emphasized unity of the World Ocean. Eratosthenes' work "Geographical Notes" has not reached us. However, the views of Eratosthenes were outlined by Strabo, and therefore we have the opportunity to present the work of Eratosthenes in all its harmony.

The merit of ancient scientists was that they sought explain scientific facts. And this led to the development historical-genetic method. Ancient scientists were interested in many things, and most importantly, in relationships. For example, the origin of the Nile Delta, the genesis of earthquakes, the formation of the Mediterranean, Black, Caspian Seas, and many others

questions. In this regard, Strabo especially stood out. Following Aristotle and Eratosthenes, Strabo believed that the surface of the Earth is constantly changing. “It is amazing,” wrote Strabo, “that some parts of the Earth, now inhabited, were formerly covered with seas, and our seas were inhabited Earths. Likewise, some springs, rivers and lakes dried up, others opened up - mountains were replaced by valleys, and vice versa.” And this was written in the 1st century BC! Strabo wrote 17 volumes of “geography” and 43 books of “history”.

One: one of the first regional experts can be considered Herodotus (484 - 428 BC). The scientist traveled a lot (Asia Minor, Babylon, Egypt, Sicily, the Black Sea coast); collected and systematized geographical information (India, Sahara, Atlas), and then described nature, population, customs, religion - 9 volumes of “History”.

Features of this stage of development of geography: integrity ancient times. This is a bright period in the development of science in general and geography in particular. If the beginning of this period can be considered a continuation of the era of ancient cultures, then its completion is associated with the fall of the Western Roman Empire, which marked end ancient era, ancient science. It was forgotten in the Middle Ages. And they remembered the science of geography only during the Renaissance.

Geography of the Middle Ages

The slave system was replaced in the Middle Ages by a more progressive feudal system. However, at the beginning of the Middle Ages productive forces were poorly developed. Significant influence for science religion provided. The materialistic views of ancient scientists were forgotten, the idea of ​​the spherical shape of the Earth was rejected.

Cosmas Indicopleus (6th century), author of the Christian Monograph of the Universe, claims that the Earth has the shape of a tabernacle, that is, the Earth is a quadrangle that is surrounded by oceans. On the maps of this time, Jerusalem was in the center, and paradise to the east.

However, religion also had a positive impact on the development of science: research was carried out in monasteries chronicles, descriptions, books were collected and printed.

The main feature of the feudal period was the isolation and disunity of people.

In the period from the 5th to the 15th centuries, the main achievements of geography come down to territorial discoveries. The greatest successes in the discovery and description of new lands were achieved by the Normans, Arabs, and Europeans.

"Northern People" Normans, inhabitants of Scandinavia lived near the coast and were skilled sailors. They raided England, France, Holland, and reached Constantinople and North America. The Northern France they captured was named "Normandy", which still exists today.

In 867 a Norman Naddot opened Iceland(ice land - ice country), founded the village of Reykjavik.

In 985 the Norman Eirik the Red opened Greenland(Ggeen land -

green, country). A colony arose on its southern shore.

Further voyages of the Normans to the west led to the discovery North America(Boyarni and Leif the Happy) between 987 and 1000. It is not known exactly what places they visited: Labrador, or Newfoundland, or south of New York. Historians of geography cannot say for sure. But it’s absolutely true that the Normans sailed to North America long before Columbus.

At first glance, one is struck by the ease with which the Vikings (the people from the gulf) reached very remote places and hard-to-reach territories and crossed large spaces of North America. We do not belittle the courage and resourcefulness of the Normans, their art of building strong ships. Vessels that rode the waves well. But at the same time, it is very, very doubtful that the Normans would have been able to achieve such tremendous successes themselves if natural conditions had not contributed to them. X - XII centuries - this is the time climatic optimum, that is, the climate then was milder than now, and therefore there were fewer seas. Otherwise, the Vikings would not have been able to swim in the area of ​​the 65th parallel. Let us remember that they called Greenland a “green country” - there were pastures here. Only later did these areas become covered with ice. In the Icelandic sagas, ice is not mentioned as an obstacle to navigation.

Until about 1200, whale and seal hunters sailed to the shores of Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya.

During the Middle Ages, a significant role in geographical science was played by Arab scientists. In 711, moving west, the Arabs penetrated the Iberian Peninsula, in the south - into the Indian Ocean (up to Madagascar - 9th century), in the east - into China. They went around Asia from the south.

The Arab scientist Biruni (973 - 1042) was the first among Central Asian scientists to express the idea of ​​the possibility rotation of the Earth around the Sun, measured the circumference of the Earth.

The great European traveler was Marco Polo (1254 - 1324). The Venetian Polo family - father, son, uncle - spent many years traveling. Their journey to China, Mongolia, by sea around South Asia, and to Western Asia lasted 45 years. Marco Polo discovered

Europeans East.“The Book of Marco Polo” tells about the animal world, vegetation, minerals and other objects (for example, monkeys, elephants, medicinal herbs, etc.). The narrative itself is fascinating, especially when it comes to spices, ivory, etc. “The Book of Marco Polo” was translated into many languages, and for a long time remained a valuable guide for all travelers to Central Asia, India, and China. Christopher Columbus also studied it.

4. Age of Discovery

In the 15th - 16th centuries, in the depths of feudal medieval society, the sprouts of a new social system - capitalism - matured. Started intensively

industry and trade developed, commodity-money relations emerged. The role of cities has increased. Science and culture developed rapidly. This time was called the Renaissance - Renaissance.

In art, culture, and science, the progressive traditions of ancient times began to be revived, but at a new level.

WITH The era of the Great Geographical Discoveries and the beginning of the development of natural science are also associated with the Renaissance period.

It was a time of energetic and passionate people. Friedrich Engels called the Renaissance the greatest progressive revolution: “At that time there was almost not a single major person who did not travel far, did not speak four or five languages, and did not shine in several fields of creativity. The Age of Great Geographical Discoveries is called so loudly because it was marked by grandiose achievements.” At this time they were open to Europeans North, Central and South America, the route to India around Africa, the first trip around the world, the beginning of systematic geographical discoveries in Siberia.

Let us dwell very briefly on the results of only a few trips. Those who wish can familiarize themselves in detail with the progress of the expeditions using the recommended literature.

The discovery of America is associated with the name of Christopher Columbus (1451 - 1506) - the great Italian traveler. Let us recall that the Normans, having been the first to visit America, will not leave written evidence. Having discovered America, they no matter how they filed a patent for this discovery. It fell into oblivion and was forgotten.

Purpose During Columbus's voyage, India and other eastern countries were fabulously rich. Columbus made four voyages. Geographical and cartographic calculations were made with an error, and on October 12, 1492 (the day of the discovery of America), Columbus ended up in the Bahamas, and then on the islands of Cuba and Hispaniola (Haiti). The error was not discovered; Columbus believed that he had visited the eastern tip of Asia, that is, India. Until the end of his days, Columbus was mistaken,

thinking that he had visited Asian territories. The perseverance and courage of a traveler who has overcome great difficulties is worthy of surprise.

Discovery of America- the most important event in the Age of Discovery.

It forced us to reconsider the previously existing views on the distribution of land and sea on Earth.

History has been unfair to Columbus. The continent he discovered received the name of another traveler. Amerigo Vespucci also visited America, but later than Columbus, and only as a member of the expedition led by Ojeda. However, Amerigo, unlike Columbus, eventually realized that he was not in Asia, but within another continent. He called this continent the New World. Glory to Vespucci

They brought his letters to his homeland, where he picturesquely and imaginatively described his journey, as well as the maps he compiled. The German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller proposed to name the newly discovered continent after Amerigo. At first it was only South America, but in 1538, on the famous Mercator map, the entire territory of America - both South and North - appeared under this name.

The dream of Europeans to find a way to India was realized by the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama (1469 - 1524). He began his journey in 1497 in Lisbon, circumnavigated Africa, and reached the Malabar coast near Calicut.

Along the paths of Columbus, seekers of new profit rushed to America. One of them, Balboa, crossed in search of gold Isthmus of Panama and saw with my own eyes the mysterious “South Sea”. This is how a European first visited the Pacific Ocean in 1513.

And already in 1519 the Portuguese Ferdinand Magellan went on his first trip around the world. His ultimate goal was pragmatic - to reach the Moluccas, rich in spices, by the western route. Magellan had to work hard before he found the passage (Strait of Magellan) between the southern tip of South America and Tierra del Fuego. In 1519, he left the Spanish port (Sanlucarde -

Barrameda), to the south of the Atlantic Ocean, and only in 1520 discovered the strait and entered Pacific Ocean. As you know, the name of the ocean was given by Magellan, because during his voyage there was not a single storm. Having passed the Pacific and Indian oceans and rounded Africa, the expedition returned to Spain in 1522 with heavy losses. Magellan was killed. Of the five ships, only one remained.

With his journey, Magellan established: 1) the unity of the World Ocean; 2) opened the water space between America and Asia; 3) confirmed the idea of ​​the spherical shape of the Earth; 4) gave a more complete idea of ​​the configuration of South America.

5. The Age of Great Russian Discoveries

Development of geography in ancient Greece

Antiquity covers the 6th century BC. BC - IV century AD e. This time is divided into two periods - ancient Greek from the 6th-1st centuries BC. e. and ancient Roman from the 1st-4th centuries AD. e.

The highest development of knowledge in ancient times was achieved in ancient Greece, including geography, which consisted of:

• regional studies,
• cosmography.

Regional studies developed with the development of trade and navigation. Cosmography put forward various theories about the origin and structure of the world.

It was important to decide what shape the Earth had. The Greeks proposed the first model of the planet, which was a round disk, convex in the middle, and a huge ocean washed around it.

The Hellenes lived on the surface of the disk, the abode of the gods - Mount Olympus was located in the center. The earth is surrounded by a fixed firmament and its radius is equal to that of the earth.

In other versions of the model, the vault of heaven rested on columns supported by Atlas.

Anaximander in his model imagined that the Earth has the shape of a segment of a round column, the diameter of this column is three times its height. The column does not rest on anything, but is located in the center of the universe. People live on the upper plane.

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During his travels, Democritus discovered that the planet was oblong. Pythagoras suggested that the Earth was spherical, and Eudoxus tried to prove this hypothesis, citing the following arguments:

• During an eclipse, a round shadow is formed,
• When going uphill, the horizon expands.

Eudoxus was the first to use a gnomon to determine the latitude of a place, and Thales of Miletus proposed the first cartographic projection - gnomonic - to construct a map of the starry sky.

It is believed that Pytheas determined the presence of a starless point at the North Pole.

All the knowledge accumulated by that time about the surface of the Earth was summarized by the Alexandrian scientist Eratosthenes from Cyrene. He quite accurately determined the size of the Earth and introduced the term “geography”. In addition, Eratosthenes drew a map of the Ecumene, dividing the entire inhabited world into 7 parallels, and drawing 9 meridians perpendicular to them. He came up with a grid that allowed him to make this drawing.

The Ecumene, Eratosthenes suggested, is a known part of land in the form of a small island surrounded by the ocean. As a result, he concludes that there must be 4 more landmasses.

Note 1

These land masses were depicted on the first globe by the ancient Greek philosopher Crates of Mallus. The globe was made in 150 BC. e. and has not survived to this day, but Strabo and Geminus mention it very briefly.

To construct maps of the starry sky, ancient astronomers used different projections, for example, stereographic, orthographic, etc.

Strabo argued that the earth's surface is constantly changing, and land and sea are distributed as a result of the rise and fall of the seabed.

Much was done for the development of cartography by Claudius Ptolemy, who believed that the Earth was the center of the Universe. He created geographic Maps various areas of the Earth's surface.

Already in ancient times, the future of regional studies, mathematical geography and other natural geographical sciences was born within geography.

Development of geography in ancient Rome

In the Mediterranean Sea from the middle of the 2nd century BC. e. dominance passes to Rome and by 30 BC. e. the entire Mediterranean, including Egypt and parts of the Middle East, was under the rule of the Roman state.

The Romans were not interested in philosophical and natural scientific problems. They saw meaning only in knowledge that brought practical benefits, for example, in military affairs or public administration.

The scientists and philosophers of the time were Greeks, and many of them successfully adapted to the practicalities of Roman rule and became supporters of Roman power.

Note 2

The Romans considered the sphericity of the Earth as an established fact. Already at that time, according to Seneca, there was a hypothesis about the rotation of the planet around its axis, but many scientists did not accept this hypothesis and, naturally, were against it.

Geographical information about the Roman Republic was contained in the writings of historians. For geographical science, the works of the Romanized Greeks Polybius and Posidonius were of greatest interest.

One of Polybius's 40 books was devoted to questions of geography, to which Strabo constantly referred, but this book has not survived. Associated with the ruling Roman nobility, he also believed that knowledge of geography was necessary for military campaigns, and he categorically rejected the study of such theoretical issues as the shape of the Earth and its size.

He reduced geographical questions only to the description of those territories that lay in the sphere of interests of Rome.

The second Roman scientist Posidonius was somewhat different. His historical work with geographical insertions was intended as a continuation of the work of Polybius. His second geographical work was about the ocean. Both works were also widely used by Strabo, but both have not survived to this day.

Posidonius's geography was most likely explanatory in nature rather than descriptive, and this displeased Strabo, who reproached him for imitating Aristotle a lot.

Considering the issue of the ocean, he analyzes in detail the spatial ideas of Homer, describes ancient voyages, and considers the changes occurring associated with the rise and fall of the Earth's surface.

In addition, Posidonius admits the existence of Atlantis, examines the doctrine of thermal belts, and describes the Oecumene. Doubting the size of the Earth's circumference calculated by Eratosthenes, he took repeated measurements and obtained a much smaller value.

His calculations were based on observations of the height above the horizon of the star Canopus in Alexandria and on the island of Rhodes.

The length of the Oikumene from west to east to India was greatly exaggerated and amounted to 11,000 km. It was from this figure of Posidonius that H. Columbus proceeded when going to India. Scientists of that time preferred to trust the calculations of Eratosthenes.

Another statement of Posidonius was completely correct, that the hot part of the zone is also suitable for life. He insisted that air temperatures near the equator are lower than in tropical zones. He came to this conclusion purely theoretically and this was in the 1st century BC.

Geographic information from the period of the Roman Republic contained almost no data on nature; it contained regional descriptions and information about peoples and tribes.

The Romans focused their attention on land surveying and made little progress in terms of general physical geography. Intensive survey work was carried out to build roads for military purposes. The results of these surveys were compiled into a map of the Empire, which was completed by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. This map was compiled in the year 20 AD. e.

Ancient travelers

Scientists know that one of the most ancient expeditions took place in 1493 BC. e. V mysterious country Somalia. After this journey, permanent ties between Egypt and Punt were established, but they were later terminated due to the decline of Egypt.

For the purpose of conquest, expeditions to Asia Minor were frequent. Scarce information about this is preserved on Egyptian monuments. One of these inscriptions says that in 1500 BC. e. Pharaoh Thutmose I moved Egyptian troops to the Jordan Valley, and from there to the banks of the Euphrates and established his rule over these areas for several centuries.

The conquered territories were later expanded by his successors, who were surprised that the Euphrates flowed south and the Lebanese mountains had very high peaks. The geographical descriptions ended with this information.

From Egypt the palm passed to the Phoenicians. They organized sea expeditions, succeeded in trade and seized a monopoly on it with the right to unhindered navigation along the Nile.

Their galleys transported food, gold, tin and other goods from Asia Minor. In ancient times, the Phoenicians were the most active seafarers. They already had their own colonies 1500 BC. e. in Cyprus, Rhodes and other islands of the Aegean Sea.

Later, Phoenician colonies appeared on the shores of Europe and Africa. Scientists suggest that their ships reached the shores of India and the Malay Archipelago.

They sailed around the African continent 20 centuries before Vasco da Gama.

Note 3

The Phoenicians did not leave written evidence of their travels, so their details are unknown to humanity.

A significant contribution to the development of geographical science was made by the Carthaginians and Greeks, who replaced the Phoenicians. A significant number of written sources were left by the Greeks, who became the founders of geographical science.

Even the decline of Greek civilization did not affect the development of geography. The geographical horizon expanded and the campaigns of Alexander the Great played a role here.

The peoples of the Mediterranean learned about the vast expanses of the Middle East, Persia, and mysterious India.

Navigation in the Aegean Sea was not without danger, but the ancient Greeks sailed freely along it to the shores of Asia Minor and back. The story of Odysseus’s wanderings from Homer’s poem requires no comment.

The travel of the Greeks reached its peak in the V-IV centuries BC. e. The same time coincided with the heyday of mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, cosmology, etc. The centers of civilization of that era were Miletus, Ephesus, Colophon, but the main center of attraction was Athens.