The transformation of feudal China into a semi-colony of Western powers began in the middle of the 19th century. The invasion of foreign capital accelerated the decomposition of subsistence economy, contributed to the expansion of the labor market, and led to the creation of large-scale industry in the country. However, foreign investors were not interested in China's economic development, but sought to use it as a sales market, a source of raw materials, and a sphere for capital investment.

In China, the process of concentration of land ownership and the dispossession of the peasantry was actively proceeding. The common people were under the yoke of Chinese and Manchu feudal lords, merchants and usurers, as well as foreign bourgeois. The traditional division of Chinese subjects into "noble", "kind", "vile" is supplemented by the emergence of new strata of society - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

In 1840-1843. The Opium War began between England and China. The British imported opium into the country in exchange for silver. Attempts by the Chinese government to stop such "trade" were not successful. Moreover, on August 29, 1842, the Nanjing Treaty of Trade was signed aboard an English warship, according to which China was obliged to open five seaports for foreign ships, and Hong Kong was ceded to England. Moreover, goods imported by England were subject to low customs tariffs. As a result of the unequal treaty, the Chinese monopoly in foreign trade was abolished. In addition to the Nanjing Treaty, a protocol was signed, according to which foreign powers received the right to establish their own authorities and administrations on the territory of Chinese ports, to keep their own police and military contingent. According to the protocol, foreigners became outside the jurisdiction of Chinese justice. In 1844, the United States and France also enter into unequal "cooperation agreements" with China.

Simultaneously with the invasion of China by foreign "patrons", a comprador bourgeoisie is developing. With the help of compradors, foreign monopolies penetrated into the countryside, which became one of the staring targets of imperialist exploitation.

The dominance of foreigners turned formally independent China into a semi-colony. Along with the creation of foreign and national industrial enterprises, the working class of China was formed. The degree of exploitation of workers was the highest in the world.

Feudal relations of production continued to dominate in the Chinese countryside. The landlords and kulaks owned 80% of all land, which was leased to the peasants on extortionate terms. The Qing dynasty was in decline.

In 1851, under the slogans of fighting the Manchus, for the abolition of private property and the establishment of social equality, the Taiping peasant uprising took place. The leaders of the rebels were the village teacher Hong Xiu-quan and his relative Hong Ren-gan, and the coal miner Yang Xiu-qing. During the struggle, the "Heavenly Welfare State" (Taiping Tianguo) was created with a monarchical form of government. In practice, the leaders of Taiping China returned to the well-known patriarchal state model. The "Heavenly State" was headed by tian-wang - the heavenly king, five vans - kings were recognized as his closest assistants. The Taipings managed to create a combat-ready, disciplined army and successfully resisted government troops. There was strict discipline in the army. Warriors were forbidden to smoke opium, drink wine, and gamble. The main military unit was the military-religious cells of 25 families. The rebels were bound by a single ideology, common property, barracks life. The Taipings were able to develop the production of firearms. In 1853, the rebels took Nanjing and promulgated the decree "Land system of the heavenly dynasty." The decree introduced a system of egalitarian distribution of material wealth and proclaimed the idea of ​​creating a patriarchal society with features of paramilitary egalitarian communism.

The Taiping state fell in 1864, but for another 2 years, separate detachments resisted the Chinese authorities. The fall of the state was accelerated by the military intervention of England and France.

In the 60-80s of the XIX century. China's ruling circles proclaim a policy of "self-strengthening of the state" and active cooperation with outside world. As a result of the current course, foreign capital has captured the most important positions in the economy. England controlled the southern provinces and the Yangtze River basin, France - the southwestern regions, Germany - the Shandong Peninsula, Japan - the island of Taiwan (Formosa), Russia - the territory of Manchuria. In 1897, there were 50 thousand foreigners in the country, 600 foreign firms and companies.

In 1861, Empress Cixi, the late emperor's eldest wife, came to power. After the defeat of China in the Franco-Chinese (1884-85) and Japanese-Chinese (1894-95) wars, there is a rise in national self-consciousness, which leads to the activation of patriotic forces.

The reform movement was led by the Confucian scholar Kang Youwei (1858-1927). In memorandums, he and his supporters denounced the existing order, arbitrariness, corruption, and spoke out in defense of the working masses. In 1895, the "Association for the Strengthening of the State" was created, and the program memorandum of the reformers was published. It contained provisions on the introduction of a constitutional monarchy, on the strengthening of state power, a call for resistance to foreign invasion, and the reform of education and the army. Kang Yuwei insisted on the introduction of political rights and freedoms for subjects.

On June 11, 1898, a decree “On the plans of the state” was issued, then a series of decrees on the reorganization of the state apparatus, on the reduction of the army, on the appointment of “talented people from the people” to positions. Construction was encouraged railways, factories, factories, the development of crafts. The progressive ideas set forth in legal acts were not put into practice, since the reformers did not have sufficient power and experienced opposition from the empress and her officials. The reformers planned in October 1898 to carry out a coup d'état. However, General Yuan Shikai, who participated in the conspiracy, betrayed the plans of the conspirators to Empress Cixi. Six reformers were executed, Kang Youwei and some of his supporters fled abroad. Repressions began against the reforms supporting the course.

A difficult economic and political situation is developing in the country. In 1898-1900. under anti-foreign slogans (“Support the Qing, destroy the foreigners!”), the Yihetuan uprising began. In the European press, it was called the Boxer Rebellion. The rebels received this name due to the fact that in their ranks there were many supporters of the Buddhist persuasion, who mastered the techniques of wu-shu (kung fu).

The rebels expelled foreign missionaries, sacked factories, shops of foreign merchants, consulates of England, France, and the USA. The European powers demanded in an ultimatum from Empress Cixi to restore order in the country and sent additional military contingents to the territories under their jurisdiction. Eight Western powers sent a 20,000-strong expeditionary force to crush the rebels. The ruling circles of China were frightened by the current situation in the country. Empress Cixi issued a decree accusing the Yihetuan of riots and bloodshed. Chinese troops were ordered to take the side of the foreign expeditionary corps. A year after the massacre of the Yihetuans, the Final Protocol was signed. Under the terms of the protocol of September 7, 1901, the Chinese government apologized to foreign powers for the damage caused, established a number of benefits and privileges for Western European countries and paid them an indemnity of 450 million liang (ounces) of silver.

In 1906, a decree was issued to prepare for constitutional government. In 1907, a bureau for drafting a constitution was established, as well as a bureau for legislative reforms. The people announced the introduction of constitutional government in 9 years.

Xinhai Revolution and Proclamation of the Republic

After the suppression of the Boxer uprising, the actions of the peasants and workers did not stop, the number of underground revolutionary organizations increased.

Under the influence of the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) and the Russian Revolution (1905-1907), revolutionary organizations in China are united into the "Union League", the core of which is the "China Revival Society". Sun Yat-sen was elected leader of the Society. It was he who developed the three principles that became the banner of the struggle: nationalism (the overthrow of the Qing dynasty, the restoration of independence); democracy (establishment of a republic); national prosperity (equal land tenure).

In 1906-1908. a new revolutionary upsurge of the masses is noted. The "Union League" is gaining new supporters among soldiers and officers. After the death of Empress Cixi (1908), the question of a successor to power and further state reforms openly arose. Revolted military units in Guangdong province.

In January 1911, the headquarters of the revolutionary uprising was set up in Hong Kong. In April, an attempt was made to rouse the masses to the revolutionary struggle. The defeat of the supporters of the "Union League" leads to the temporary emigration of Sun Yat-sen and his assistants.

On October 10, 1911, the military came out against the existing Qing regime in Wuchang. The flames of the uprising engulfed the provinces of southern and central China. The north, less industrialized, remained in the hands of the supporters of the qin (Manchus). Yuan Shikai was appointed Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief of the Chinese Armed Forces.

In the south, a Provisional Revolutionary Government was formed, and a Conference of Provincial Representatives (later changed to the National Assembly) was convened. At the congress of representatives, China was proclaimed a republic, and Sun Yat-sen, who had returned from exile, was elected provisional president. The driving forces of the revolution were the liberal bourgeoisie, the peasantry, soldiers and officers.

On March 10, 1911, the Provisional Constitution of China was adopted. The Basic Law set out the democratic principles for building a new society and state, proclaimed political rights (freedom of speech, assembly, press) and personal immunity. Legislative power was exercised by a bicameral parliament. Executive - the president and the government.

The revolutionary situation in the country led to the abdication of the Qing dynasty ( given event happened on the day of Xin-hai, hence the name of the revolution) and the convening of a provisional all-China parliament. In order to unify China, an agreement was reached between Sun Yat-sen and Yuan Shikai. In the name of the unification of the country, and guided by the desire to end the confrontation between the North and the South, Sun Yat-sen resigned the presidency in favor of Yuan Shikai.

Popular unrest in the country continued. Yuan Shikai responded with reprisals. In December 1912 - February 1913, elections to the permanent parliament were held on the basis of high qualifications: age (a citizen must be over 21 years old), property (a citizen owned private property or paid a direct tax), settled (at least 2 years), literacy.

Yuan Shikai strengthened his sole power and unleashed terror in the country. Sun Yat-sen was forced to emigrate. On May 1, 1914, a new Constitution is introduced, according to which the president is elected for 10 years and actually becomes a dictator. The Cabinet of Ministers is responsible to the president, and not to the parliament, positions, titles, and titles are introduced along the lines of the Qing empire.

The liberal bourgeoisie agreed to an alliance with Yuan Shikai. She sought to complete the revolution in this way. In response to this, Sun Yat-sen organized a political party - the Kuomintang (National Party). The Kuomintang revolted against the Yuan Shikai clique. After crushing this uprising, Yuan Shikai banned the activities of the Kuomintang.

In January 1915, Japan sends troops into Shandong (formerly the territory belonged to Germany) and strengthens its dominance in China. Yuan Shikai is forced to accept Japan's 21 demands. The country actually becomes a colony of Japan. The comprador bourgeoisie tried to restore the monarchy. Yuan Shikai's death thwarted their plans. In periods of serious crisis, as happened more than once in the history of China, the military took power. The Chinese Parliament was dissolved, then met again. His powers were reduced to advisory. A military dictatorship was formed in the north of the country under Duan Qi-rui.

Soon Sun Yat-sen returned from exile to revolutionary China. In the south of the country, under his leadership, in September 1917, a military government was created to protect the republic (the capital is the city of Canton).

After the Xinhai Revolution, which abolished the monarchy, Republican China remained politically fragmented. The Beijing government was only nominally considered "national". His power extended to the capital and a number of provinces. In some areas, military governors dominated, more precisely feudal-militarist cliques with their troops. The wars that the local authorities waged among themselves increased the fragmentation of the country, made China especially vulnerable to imperialist predators.

The revolutionary transformations in China were unfinished. The overthrow of the monarchy and the proclamation of the republic led to a change in the state system. However, China remained a semi-colony of foreign states.

At the beginning of the XX century. China stood on the threshold of new battles for social justice and national liberation.

Right

The most important role in the law of China continued to play two systematized sets of laws of the empire. The first set contained the norms of state and administrative law, the second of civil, family and criminal law. Both sets of laws supplemented medieval law, but did not fundamentally change it. The codification commission created by the emperor's decree worked on the systematization of the norms of law from 1644 to 1646. As a result of the commission's activities, the laws of the Ming dynasty and new decrees of the Qing dynasty were included in the Qing code. Legal prescriptions were presented in a casuistic form.

In 1647, a code called "Da qing lu li" (Basic Laws and Ordinances of the Great Qing Dynasty) was published. Structurally, the code consisted of seven sections. The first section included legal material on penalties and the circumstances under which penalties may be mitigated. The remaining six sections consisted of compositions, beating with bamboo sticks, hard labor, exile, branding, etc. Children from the age of 7 were criminally liable. Punishments were applied to both criminals and members of their families.

Civil law, marriage and family and inheritance relations were regulated by the "Da qing lu li" code, customary law. With the development of markets, the activities of trading agents, banks, trade partnerships, joint-stock companies, international treaties, charters of shop, trade and manufacturing organizations began to play an important role in regulating civil law relations.

The need of the ruling circles to stabilize the situation in the country after the Xinhai Revolution is expressed in the adoption of a new Criminal Code, which was in force from 1911 to 1931.

The code was a step forward from the Qing code of laws. It was divided into General and Special parts, its material was systematized, included articles on criminal conviction and early release. Corporal punishment was excluded from the code. Many articles provided for penalties.

Central and local governments. During the reign of the Qing Dynasty, the emperor-bogdykhan was the head of state. He had full civil and military power. The person of the Bogdykhan was considered sacred, his will was not limited in any way. The Chinese emperor concentrated in his hands the supreme legislative, judicial and administrative power. The emperor as the "Son of Heaven" ruled at the behest of the gods and was inaccessible to his subjects.

The emperor exercised his power with the help of the central apparatus, which consisted of the State Council, the State Chancellery and ministries (councils). The State Council and the Chancellery discussed bills and took part in determining the policy of the Chinese state. Administrative power was exercised through six councils - ministries: the Council of Civil Appointments, which was in charge of personnel appointments civil services; the Council of Revenue, dealing with finance and taxation; the Council of Rites, responsible for the observance of court protocol; the Council of War, in charge of the armed forces; the Council of Punishments, which was responsible for the work of the courts and prisons; Council of Works, involved in the organization and implementation of state construction projects. Within the framework of the military-bureaucratic monarchy that was established in China with the advent of the Qing Dynasty, the Military Council was the key governing body.

The activity of the Qing government was built on a system of dual appointments: two people were appointed to one state post at the same time - a Manchu and a Han (an ethnic Chinese). The second was engaged practical work, the first one controlled the Han and ensured his loyalty to the regime.

In the second half of the XIX century. A number of reforms are being carried out in the state apparatus of China. So, in the structure of state bodies, the Main Chancellery for Foreign Affairs was established, the task of which was to manage foreign relations, the Administration of Imperial Customs, etc.; Han Chinese were given more opportunities to hold civil and military posts.

In 1898, the decree "On the plans of the state" was adopted, which determined the program of transformations, called "One Hundred Days of Reforms", which was developed in 60 imperial decrees. The program envisaged the modernization of state administration according to the Western model, the abolition of obsolete administrative bodies, the reduction of the bureaucracy and the army, and the stimulation of economic development. However, the reorganization undertaken "from above" state power, with the aim of establishing a constitutional monarchy, failed, which led China to a revolutionary change.

As a result of the Xinhai Revolution, a provisional government was formed. In 1912, the Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China was published, which proclaimed China a democratic republic with a unitary system and separation of powers. The highest legislative power was entrusted to the Parliament, which consisted of two chambers: the upper house - the Senate and the lower - the House of Representatives. In addition to the legislative power, Parliament had the right to approve the budget for New Year, and could also pass a vote of no confidence in the government. In 1913 Parliament created a constitutional commission to prepare a permanent constitution.

Suffrage in China was not universal and direct. Only citizens over the age of 21 who had lived in the constituency for at least two years could participate in the elections. In addition, each voter had to pay a direct tax or possess certain property. The electors first elected the electors, and the latter elected the deputies. In December 1912 - February 1913 parliamentary elections were held in China.

The head of state, the bearer of the highest executive was the President of the Republic of China, who was elected for a term of five years. He appointed and dismissed civil and military officials, was the commander-in-chief of the army and navy, represented the republic in relations with foreign states, issued decrees, could declare war, establish martial law in the country with the approval of parliament. In 1914, the rights of the president were expanded and the rights of parliament were limited. According to these changes, the president was endowed with de facto dictatorial powers. In addition, it was envisaged to increase the term of presidency to ten years.

Under the 1912 constitution, the cabinet of ministers helped the president govern the country, but all ministers were responsible to the House of Representatives.

By the beginning of the 20s. 20th century China did not represent a single political entity. The power of the central government of China (Nanjing - Beijing) extended only to the northern and central provinces. The southern provinces were subordinate to the Cantonese government and recognized as valid the provisional constitution of 1912.

In 1923, the central government adopted the permanent Constitution of the Republic of China, which enshrined the principle of separation of powers. Legislative power in the Republic of China belonged to the Parliament, which consisted of two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives. Members of both chambers could not hold civil or military official positions. The Senate was elected for six years and was renewed every two years by 1/3 of the composition, and the term of office of the House of Representatives was three years.

The supreme executive power in the Republic of China belonged to the President. Any citizen of the Republic of China at the age of 40 who had lived in the country for at least ten years and enjoyed full civil rights could be elected president. The president was elected by an electoral commission specially formed from among the members of parliament. This commission, with the participation of at least 2/3 of its members, conducted a roll-call vote. The one who received more than 3/4 of the votes was considered elected. The term of office of the president was five years. If he ran for office again, he could be re-elected for another term. If the post of president was vacant, then the vice-president, who served as president until the expiration of his term, became his successor. And if the post of vice-president was vacant at the same time, his duties were performed by the Council of State. In this case, a session of parliament was convened for no more than three months, which formed an election commission to conduct presidential elections. The election of the vice-president was carried out in the same order as the election of the president, and took place simultaneously with the election of the latter.

The State Council (Cabinet of Ministers) consisted of prime minister and ministers heading various ministries and departments. According to the constitution, the Prime Minister of the Council of State could only be appointed with the consent of the House of Representatives. All ministers were obliged to assist the president, but they were responsible to the House of Representatives. All decrees and other government documents issued by the president must be countersigned by the relevant minister, without which they would have no effect. Ministers had the right to attend and speak at meetings of both houses of parliament.

Judicial power belonged to the Supreme Court, whose members were appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate. Elected judicial chambers functioned locally.

In Kuomintang China, the constitution of 1923 was abolished. supreme body state power during this period was the highest party body - the National Congress of the Kuomintang, and in the period between its convocations - the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang. The national government was placed under the control of the Political Bureau of the Kuomintang. The leader of the ruling party was also the chairman of the government. This power structure was legally enshrined in the interim constitution of the period of political guardianship (1931).

In 1946, the political system of Kuomintang China was formalized constitutionally. In the new constitution, the main institutions of the period of political guardianship were legally fixed. According to the constitution, the institution of the presidency, which was absent at that time, was introduced. In accordance with the Provisional Rules for the period of national mobilization for the suppression of the 1948 rebellion, certain provisions of the constitution were repealed, and emergency dictatorial powers were granted to the President-elect.

The highest authorities in China Soviet Republic since 1931, there was the Congress of Soviets, the Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars elected by it, which had the right to legislate. At the same time, judicial institutions were formed in the person of the Supreme Court and local people's courts. The law on elections to councils gave active and passive suffrage only to working people. All exploitative and counter-revolutionary elements were deprived of political rights. Elections of deputies were carried out by open voting at special elective meetings according to the production-territorial principle: workers - at enterprises, and peasants and other workers - at their place of residence.

During the formation of the People's Republic of China, the main bodies of the new government were the military control committees (MCCs) of the People's Liberation Army of China, which were appointed by front-line military-political bodies. All other power structures (people's political councils, conferences of people's representatives, administrative committees, etc.) were subordinate to the military control committees. In the spring and summer of 1949, the People's Political Consultative Council of China (CPPCC) took shape organizationally.

In accordance with the Program of the CPPCC of 1949, the Assemblies of People's Representatives, formed through general elections, became the authorized bodies of state power. The Central People's Government Council (TsNPS) was also formed, which had the powers of the highest body of state power until September 1954 (legislation, ratification of international treaties, approval of the budget and report on its implementation, appointment of senior government officials, resolution of issues of war and peace, etc. .d.). The Central People's Government Council, in turn, formed the State Administrative Council - the government of the republic, the People's Revolutionary Military Council, the Supreme Court and the Supreme People's Prosecutor's Office.

The main principle of the organization of the state apparatus was declared democratic centralism, with an indication of the accountability of government bodies to representative bodies and the subordination of the minority to the majority. Particular emphasis was placed on the need to fight the bureaucratic style of work, separation from the masses, to strictly punish bribery and prohibit wastefulness. A system of people's control bodies was established to monitor the implementation of laws and official duties by state institutions and employees with the right to hold them accountable in case of violation of the law and official duty.

A characteristic feature of the judicial system in 1949-1954. there was an abundance of various kinds of emergency courts. In addition to the military tribunals of the VKK, since 1950 people's tribunals began to be created, which were formally considered chambers (collegia) of county and city people's courts, but in fact were special emergency courts. Their competence included all cases of counter-revolutionary crimes and banditry. The leading persons and half of the members of the tribunals were elected by the county or city people's governments, the other half were elected by the conferences of people's representatives or delegated by people's organizations or elected at meetings of peasants or members of peasant unions. The verdicts of the people's tribunals were subject to approval by the people's governments of cities and counties or higher government bodies.

In March 1952, the Administrative Council established people's tribunals for the duration of the mass campaign "san fan" ("against the three evils" - corruption, wastefulness and bureaucracy). These tribunals were created in all institutions from the district administrations and above, in military units and formations from the regiment and above. They could impose any kind of punishment, including the death penalty, with subsequent approval by higher government or military authorities. The chairmen of the tribunals were heads of institutions and military commanders. People's tribunals in the cities were created by the city people's governments and during the 1952-1953 period. the mass campaign "wu fan" ("against the five evils" - bribing state officials, embezzlement, tax evasion, fraud with government orders, stealing secret state economic information). As a rule, the chairmen of the city people's courts were appointed as chairmen of the tribunals. The sentences of these tribunals, if they provided for the death penalty or long-term imprisonment (of ten years or more), were subject to approval by higher government bodies.

In March 1951, the TsNPS adopted the Provisional Organizational Regulations for the People's Courts of the People's Republic of China, the Provisional Organizational Regulations for the Supreme People's Procuratorate of the Central People's Government, and the General Principles for the Organization of Local People's Procuratorates.

The provisional organizational status of the people's courts of the PRC proceeded from the practice of incorporating people's courts into the structure of local governments. Local people's procuratorates were also included in local governments and were thus, like the courts, in dual subordination - to their higher bodies and local people's governments.

In accordance with the constitution of 1954, the People's Republic of China was defined as a state of people's democracy, in which power belongs to the people through the National People's Congress (NPC) and local people's congresses. Significant independence was granted to its permanent body - the Standing Committee (PC) of the NPC. The constitution also introduced the post of President of the PRC into the system of supreme organs of state power. Gradually, legislative functions were concentrated in the NPC Standing Committee, the leadership of which coincided with the leadership of the Communist Party of China.

The place of the Administrative Council in the new system of state bodies was taken by the State Council, which differed significantly in its constitutional status from its predecessor in terms of the scope of powers and organization. The Council became in charge of the development of the armed forces, including the Ministry of Defense in its system.

The constitutional system of the judiciary was based on the principles of the administration of justice only by the courts, participation in litigation people's assessors, the independence of judges and ensuring the accused's right to defense; organization and activities of the prosecutor's office - on the principles of centralism and independence from local authorities. It was established that chairmen of courts at all levels were elected by the councils of people's representatives, and judges were appointed by people's committees. Accountability and responsibility of courts to representative bodies was introduced. Party control was established over the activities of the judiciary and the prosecutor's office. However, in practice, party committees took the place of judicial committees and colleges of prosecutors. The territorial party committees not only interfered in the consideration of specific cases by the courts, but the secretaries of the party committees assumed the functions of judges.

According to the 1975 PRC Constitution, the National People's Congress was the highest body of state power under the leadership of the Communist Party of China. The powers of the NPC were significantly narrowed. In particular, his rights to form the highest bodies of the state were reduced by the constitution only to the dismissal of the Prime Minister of the State Council and other persons who are members of this body. Provisions on the rights and guarantees of the rights of deputies were excluded from the constitution. The constitution significantly curtailed the powers of the standing committee of the NPC.

The constitution abolished the post of the President of the People's Republic of China and a number of other state bodies. The State Council, which consisted of the prime minister, deputy prime ministers, ministers and chairmen of committees, remained the supreme body of executive power.

In order to create an effective administrative apparatus, the new Constitution of the People's Republic of China of 1978 returned to a clearer definition of the status of state bodies, for which many provisions of the first Constitution of the People's Republic of China were used. So, the powers of the NPC were restored, close to the text of the first constitution and the list of powers of the NPC PC. The list of powers of the State Council was somewhat reduced by eliminating references to specific branches of administrative leadership.

The Constitution of 1982 introduced significant changes in the state structure of the PRC, expressed in the restoration of the institution of the Chairman of the PRC; granting the PC of the NPC virtually the same rights in the field of legislation as the assembly itself; the creation of the Central Military Council of the People's Republic of China; determining the terms limiting the stay of some senior government officials in their posts; establishing the principle of incompatibility of membership in the standing committees of people's congresses with the holding of administrative, judicial and prosecutorial positions; the establishment of a system of audit bodies within the government at various levels to strengthen control over financial activities.

The 1982 constitution democratizes the institution of suffrage, the principles of which are universal, equal active and passive suffrage, the mandatory representation of all national minorities in state authorities at various levels, the election of all representative bodies of power in a democratic way, their responsibility to the people and accountability to the people, control of deputies by the bodies that elected them, the right to recall and replace deputies by the bodies that elected them.

According to this constitution, all citizens of the PRC who have reached the age of 18 have the right to vote and be elected. At the same time, no restrictions related to nationality and race, gender, occupation, social origin, religion, education, property status and settlement are allowed. An exception is made for persons deprived of political rights.

An important role in ensuring the work of the state apparatus is played by the organs of the court and the prosecutor's office. According to the constitution, the Supreme People's Court is the highest judicial body, responsible directly to the NPC and its PC. Of no small importance is the restoration of the institution of the prosecutor's office as law enforcement agency state, designed to ensure strict observance of laws.

The general rules for the organization of the judicial system of the PRC were determined by the Law on the Organization of the People's Courts of 1979. The courts are divided into people's and special. Local people's courts are divided into three levels: basic, middle and highest. Most civil, criminal and administrative cases in the first instance are heard by people's courts at the main level.

The development of the local government system in modern China went through several stages.

Local government in China during the Qing Dynasty was determined by the presence of centralized power and represented a unitary form. state structure. The territory of the country was divided into provinces, and the latter, in turn, were subdivided into regions, districts and counties. Each province was headed by two governors, military and civilian, who were subordinate to the governor. Regions, districts and counties were ruled by chiefs with the help of officials and elders. In the middle of the XIX century. The system of two governors in the provinces was abolished, and local power was concentrated in the hands of governors.

The Constitution of 1923 secured the unitary state unity. The territorial-administrative units of China were provinces and counties. The representative assemblies of provinces and counties and their executive councils were elected by the people on the basis of direct elections for four years.

During the formation of the People's Republic of China, the CPPCC General Program of 1949 proclaimed the policy of local regional national autonomy, and the principle of self-determination of the peoples inhabiting China was not mentioned. Local people's governments and local people's congresses were proclaimed the program as local state organs. In addition, military administrative committees and military control committees functioned locally.

The Constitution of 1954 introduced significant changes in the organization of local authorities and administration: all deputies of the councils of people's representatives were elected directly by the population or by subordinate SNPs. The legal status of the regions of national autonomy has changed. They were divided into stages: autonomous regions (districts), autonomous regions and autonomous counties. In addition, it was envisaged the creation of national volosts as non-autonomous administrative-territorial units. The principle of national self-determination was not included in the constitution; it limited the solution of the national question to administrative autonomy.

The constitution of 1975 included revolutionary committees, which were formed during the cultural revolution, in the system of local government bodies. Formally, they were local authorities along with people's congresses (SNPs), permanent organs of the latter, and local people's governments. However, in fact, SNPs were not convened, and revolutionary committees acquired the significance of the political basis of the state. The constitution also fixed the rural people's communes as local governments.

Provisions on how to solve the national question in China were excluded from the constitution. Also not included are the old guidelines that prohibited discrimination and oppression based on nationality. The autonomous rights of national regions were also not defined in this document, and their self-government bodies were established in the forms defined for ordinary administrative-territorial units.

The Constitution of 1978 restored some of the language of the first Constitution of the PRC regarding the status of national minorities and national autonomies. Then this line was continued by the 1982 constitution, which restored the basic autonomous rights of national regions, including the right to issue provisions on autonomy, to form local public security troops. The volost link of the authorities and administration and its separation from the people's communes were also recreated.

Since ancient times, the Chinese considered their state to be the center of the world. They called it the middle, or heavenly, state. All the surrounding peoples were barbarians for the Chinese and were considered as subjects of the emperor. In the XVI-XVIII centuries. Korea, Vietnam, Burma, Tibet were vassals of China.

At the head of the Chinese state was the emperor, who had unlimited power, which he inherited. In governing the country, the emperor was assisted by the state council, which included his relatives, scientists and advisers. The government of the country was carried out through three chambers. The first chamber included six departments: ranks, rituals, financial, military, department of punishments, department of public works. The other two chambers prepared imperial decrees and oversaw ceremonies and receptions in honor of the emperor.

A special chamber of censors controlled the actions of officials throughout China. The country was divided into provinces, which were divided into districts and counties, they were ruled by officials of various ranks.

The Chinese state bore the name of the ruling dynasty in the country: from 1368 to 1644. - "empire of the Ming dynasty", since 1644 - "empire of the Qing dynasty".

By the beginning of the XVI century. China was already a state of high culture with a developed education system. The first stage of the education system was the school, where boys studied, whose parents could pay for education. After the final exam in primary school it was possible to enter a provincial school, in which the study of hieroglyphs continued (and there are about 60 thousand of them in Chinese, 6-7 thousand were memorized at school, learned people knew 25-30 thousand), and also students mastered calligraphy - the skill to write beautifully and clearly with ink. Students of the school memorized the books of ancient authors, got acquainted with the rules of versification and compilation of treatises. At the end of the training, they took an exam - they wrote a poem in verse and an essay. Only an educated person could become an official.

Among the Chinese officials there were many Izhi-vopistsev poets. in China in the 16th century. crafts for the manufacture of silk and porcelain were already developed. Porcelain and silk fabrics were decorated with various designs using high quality paints.

The three main pillars of the Chinese state for many centuries were three teachings: Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. Confucius developed his teachings in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e., and it occupied an important place in the worldview of the Chinese in the XVI-XVIII centuries. Traditional society in China was built on the Confucian principles of filial piety and respect for elders. Loyalty, humility, kindness and compassion, a high sense of duty, education were the main features of a noble and worthy person.

Founder of Taoism Lao Tzu- expounded his teachings in the book "Tao Te Ching". Gradually, Taoism turned from a philosophy into a religion (“dao” in Chinese means “the way”). Taoism taught that a person can escape the torment of hell and even become immortal. To do this, one must follow the principle of "non-action" in one's life, that is, step aside from active social life, become a hermit, seek the true path - Tao.

Buddhism entered China from India at the beginning of the 1st millennium CE. e. and by the 16th century. had a very strong position and a huge impact on the life of traditional society. By this period, many temples and Buddhist monasteries were built in China.

All three teachings were of great importance for maintaining and strengthening the foundations of the Chinese state, they were the main pillars of traditional Chinese society.

Qing dynasty

In the first half of the 19th century, the largest on the planet 300 million people were ruled by the Manchu dynasty Qing ("Pure"). The Manchus are a nomadic people who came from the northeast and seized power in the 17th century, taking advantage of the unrest in China. Neighboring tribes always had the habit of running into China and conquering it once every hundred or two hundred years, and the Manchus were by no means the first - they were already following the beaten path after the Mongols, Jurchens, Khitans, Xianbeis and other tribes and hordes.

The Manchus occupied major positions in the armed forces and civil administration. The power of the leaders of the few Manchu tribes over the many millions of Chinese people rested on the alliance of the conquerors with the Chinese feudal lords. Having established themselves on the throne of the Chinese emperors - the Bogdykhans, the Manchus did not make major changes to the structure of the state bodies of the previous dynasty.

The Chinese emperor was an unlimited monarch who replaced the throne hereditarily and according to the principle of primogeniture. But this order was not strictly followed. Before his death, the emperor could choose any of his sons as his successor, and if there were none, then any of the princes of the imperial blood. The emperor was the supreme legislator and high priest, who had the exclusive right to offer sacrifices and prayers to the "Supreme Heaven", as well as the unlimited right to punish and pardon his subjects.

The highest state institutions of the Qing Empire were the Imperial Secretariat and the Military Council. Initially, the most important military and civil affairs were in charge of the Imperial Secretariat, created back in 1671 from an equal number of Manchu and Chinese dignitaries. After 1732, when the Military Council was established for more efficient management of military operations in the aggressive campaigns of the Bogdykhans, the decision of all important state affairs passed to this new body.

The supreme executive power was exercised by the emperor, as in the Ming dynasty, through six central ministries (orders): ranks, taxes, ceremonies, military, criminal penalties, public works. There were also other central institutions. Thus, control over the activities of metropolitan and local officials was carried out leading its history from the II century. BC. Chamber of censors, and the Supreme Court was engaged in the analysis of cassation complaints.

China during the Qing Dynasty was characterized by the presence of strong local power, concentrated mainly in the hands of governors and governors. The country was divided into provinces, and the latter, in turn, into regions, districts and counties. Each province was headed by military and civil governors (most often they were Manchus), who were subordinate to the governor, who concentrated military and civil power in his hands. Regions, districts and counties were headed by chiefs who managed the respective units with the help of officials and elders of hundred and ten courtyards. At all levels, the judiciary was connected with the administration, but usually special officials were allocated to carry out judicial proceedings. Formally, access to public service was open to all who passed the special examinations for degree, which until the last years of the Qing Dynasty were three stages. The third (highest) degree was awarded after examinations in the county, then in the province, in the capital. Officialdom, as in the previous dynasty, was divided into nine classes, each of which was assigned certain insignia.

The first contacts with Europeans were in the 15th century. As in Asia in general, the Portuguese were the first to appear here, who were able to gain a foothold in Macau. Consisting of the Macao Peninsula and two islands and covering a total area of ​​15.51 square kilometers, it has always been Chinese territory. It was originally part of Xiangshan County, Guangdong Province. In 1535 (During the Ming Dynasty), the Portuguese, by bribing local authorities, obtained permission to anchor and trade on the banks of the Aomyn. In the same year, the Portuguese began to settle in these lands under the pretext of putting their wet goods in order. As a result, having received these territories for perpetual use, the Portuguese made them an outpost of the country in East Asia. Later, the Spaniards, the Dutch, the British and the French appeared in East Asia. Trade between Europeans and China was covered by the mask of paying tribute by the white barbarians to the son of Heaven. The Chinese authorities did not even recognize Europeans as equals in the cultural and political level. The only exception was Russia, China's strongest continental neighbor.

The Manchus were very sensitive to the protection of their northern border, so they were very well prepared to deal with the Russians. The Treaty of Nerchinsk was the first treaty between a European country and China, the terms of which, although unfavorable for Russia as a whole, were, however, in which the latter was an equal party. The Treaty of Kyakhta (1727) consolidated the previous one and opened China to Russia for equal trade. Attempts by the Europeans to conclude equal treaties with China were unsuccessful. In 1760 Europeans were allowed to trade only through the port of Guangzhou with a strictly limited number of companies holding an imperial license.

In the 19th century, China continued to pursue a policy of isolating the country from the rest of the world. Foreigners were forbidden to come and settle in China, as well as to own any property; The Chinese were forbidden under pain of death to teach Chinese to foreigners. The penetration of Western capital was hindered by severe restrictions on contacts with the outside world. However, Europeans in China were interested not only in trade. Beginning in the 13th century, Catholic missionaries tried to convert the Chinese to Christianity. Together with religion, they carried Western knowledge in mathematics, cartography, architecture and art. The missionaries (most of whom were Jesuits) localized Christianity to suit Chinese realities, but were eventually condemned by the pope in 1704. for conducting Confucian rites among newly converted Christians. The decision of the pope greatly weakened the Christian movement in China, which lost confidence in Europe, remaining alien to China. By the beginning of the 19th century, there were only a few hundred Chinese Christians.

At the beginning of the 19th century, China entered a period of stagnation - with seeming stability and even greatness, the country had long been in need of reforms.

Trade relations with other countries

The British conquests in India fueled the interest of Europeans in the neighboring country. Goods from the Celestial Empire - silk, tea, porcelain - have always been in great demand in the West, and the European bourgeoisie was dizzy from the prospects of its colossal market.

By the beginning of the XIX century. in China, as before, a traditional society continued to exist, in which small-scale peasant crafts and handicraft industries acquired a certain development. At the same time, commodity-money relations began to spread quite widely in some regions of the country. There was a process of concentration of landed property and landlessness of the peasantry. The cruel exploitation of the peasants and the urban poor by feudal lords, usurers and merchants was supplemented by national oppression.

Meanwhile, in Europe and America, the demand for tea was growing, and the demand for silk and porcelain continued to grow. But the Chinese, with their feudal attitude, did not need any Western goods. Western countries, including England, received a negative trade balance. Attempts by British delegations to establish diplomatic relations and streamline commercial ties with Beijing did not bear fruit. The emperor cordially welcomed the ambassador Sir George McCartney, but rejected his proposals, reasonably noting that China has everything and does not need to be imported. Samples of British goods were accepted as tribute - the Chinese perceived "barbarian" England only as a dependent state. The self-sufficiency of the Chinese economic complex, oriented towards a capacious domestic market, made export expansion unnecessary, and the structure of the needs of traditional society could not create a sufficient response demand for Western goods. Therefore, for quite a long time, the exports of Western countries (primarily Britain) from China significantly prevailed over imports. The decision of Parliament in 1784 to lower the duties on the import of tea made tea the British national drink and at the same time led to a huge outflow from the British financial system of silver, which was paid in trade with China.

The weakening of the "decaying semi-civilization of the most ancient state in the world" could not fail to take advantage of other countries. England was at the forefront of European colonial expansion. However, even she did not have the strength to occupy vast China - whatever you say, but Indians themselves conquered India for the British crown - and preferred the economic methods of exploiting its population. To remedy the situation, English merchants were looking for goods that would be in demand among the Chinese. As a result, India was involved in the trade, where at first the Europeans bought opium and raw cotton, which were in demand in China, and then sold it all in Guangzhou. Opium was prohibited from being imported into China by a special imperial decree, but thanks to the bribery of officials, the drug trade unfolded according to full program. This potion has been known in China for many centuries as a medicine, but as a narcotic it has become popular since the 18th century. The addiction spread rapidly, primarily at the top of society - among officials and the nobility. From the middle of the 18th century, the British East India Company controlled opium plantations in Bengal. Their areas have been dramatically increased. The device of the mechanism is quite clear from the diagram.

From 1830 to 1837, English exports of opium to China increased from 2,000 cases (each weighing about 60 kg) to 39,000. Such a scale was not dreamed of by any of the modern drug cartels. The famous East India Company created the first drug trafficking system in history by monopolizing the production of opium poppy in India. Opium contributed more than 10% of the company's revenues. Trade in it became a means of correcting the trade balance, which soon became positive for Britain, while exports from China continued to grow. British income from the opium trade exceeded that of silk and tea. In the 1820-1840s, China exported goods worth 10 million liang of silver abroad and imported 60 million worth. The lion's share was opium. The drug trade crowded out the trade in other goods, the leakage of silver disrupted the finances of the Qing Empire, millions of Chinese, from simple coolies to princes of all 12 ranks, became victims of addiction. The dignitaries Jiang Xianan and Huang Juezi were horrified to discover that more than half of the employees of the Criminal and Tax Chambers were drug addicts. State institutions, from the artificial irrigation system to the privileged "Eight-Banner Troops", were crumbling and spiraling out of control. This prompted the imperial court to ban the opium trade and smoking from time to time. Only in 1839 did Emperor Daoguang decide to inflict real damage on the drug business.

Opium Wars

By the 1940s, the number of drug addicts in China exceeded two million. The authorities sounded the alarm and took tough measures. Lin Zexu, an ethnic Chinese, a Confucian scribe, was appointed imperial auditor in a particularly disadvantaged coastal province of Guangdong. He revered his ancestors and Heaven, and saw in foreigners barbarians who violated the duty of obedience to the only legitimate sovereign on the planet - the Chinese emperor. That, however, did not prevent the auditor Lin from being interested in European science and ordering new guns from overseas.

On March 10, 1839, the seizure of opium began in Canton. Merchant ships that tried to escape with cargo were intercepted. By blocking the places of residence of foreigners. Lin Zexu secured another 20,000 cases of drugs. It is possible that some data is exaggerated (in accordance with the traditions of Qing office work), but it is known that seized opium was burned and drowned in the sea for three weeks on the Humyn shallows. Modern Chinese literature gives the following number: 1188 tons. Having wiped away their tears, the drug dealers estimated their damage at two and a quarter million pounds sterling at the time.

The auditor turned out to be a good diplomat. For the voluntarily surrendered opium, he began to issue compensation with tea, which was highly valued in Europe. And he announced to foreign merchants that he did not encroach on honest business, but everyone must give a subscription that he would not import opium. Those who break the oath are subject to the death penalty. Some Englishmen have compromised. The drug trafficking scheme began to unravel. But this affected the interests not of individuals, but of the entire British Empire. After all, silver, with which the unfortunate Chinese paid for their own painful death, served as an important source of capital accumulation. Not only the luxury of the ruling classes depended on him, but also the modernization of industry, as well as the growth of the living standards of the working people, which allowed England to shame Marx and avoid destructive revolutions on its territory. Therefore, the official representative of the British Crown in Guangdong, C. Elliot, sent warships to intercept those merchants at sea who agreed to give the above-mentioned subscription. In November, the first armed clash between British and Chinese sailors took place at the Chuanbi Fort. It did not bring success to the "mistress of the seas."

And in April 1840, the parliament in London makes an official decision on the war with China, sends an expeditionary force of another Elliot - George - there, and one of the main goals of the war declares the recovery from the Chinese government of damages for drugs destroyed by Lin Zexu. The plan for the military operation, which later became known as the first opium war, was developed by a major businessman, Jardin, whose name is still borne by one of the largest companies in Hong Kong, Jardin and Mathisson.

The war was fought in its own way. The British sent boats to the coast at night, decorated with appropriate advertisements, and offered drugs to everyone for a third of the price in order to finally decompose the already not very disciplined Qing army. In turn, the Chinese announced a reward of 100 yuan for each "white devil", and for the "black devil" (that is, a black servant) half of this amount.

Lin Zexu had to fight not even on two, but on three fronts. The court aristocracy, involved in the opium trade, attacked the emperor with complaints about the Guangdong extremist" and respectful requests to show "peacefulness", that is, to capitulate. They tried to exclude even the minimal possibility of victory for their own troops. At the same time, under the slogan "Death to the devils!" any contact with foreigners, regardless of whether they trade in opium. These national patriots, with their stupidity and cruelty, nullified the diplomacy of Lin, who tried to oppose the "good barbarians" with the "bad" ones. women, missionaries or their own compatriots who converted to Christianity, they discredited China in the public opinion of Europe and America, where not everyone approved of the opium trade.

Emperor Daoguang signed decrees alternately in favor of one or the other clique - while Lin Zexu, meanwhile, could not get money from the treasury even for a tip. Capitulation to the drug mafia was a foregone conclusion in November 1840 by an imperial decree, which remains the pinnacle of legal thought, unsurpassed even in Russia in the 90s of the XX century: since it is impossible to imagine that the Chinese would not obey their emperor, it means that they are already drugs. don't smoke. The aims of the opium ban order, with which Lin Zexu went to Canton, have thus been achieved, and there is no need to extend its validity.

The British blocked Canton and other southern ports, captured Dinghai in July 1840, and in August appeared in Tianjin, in close proximity to the capital of the empire. Chinese armies, armed with swords, pikes and farts, in best case- with antediluvian muskets, turned out to be incapable of combat, they handed over coastal forts and cities to small detachments of the British one after another. The feudal army could not resist the first-class armed ground forces and fleet of England, and the Qing authorities showed a complete inability to organize the defense of the country. The blame for the defeat was placed on Lin Zexu: he was removed from office and exiled to the remote province of Xinjiang.

In 1841, the British take Canton, Amoy and Ningbo, large cities in the southern Chinese provinces of Guangdong, Fujian and Zhejiang. The following year, the British capture Shanghai and Zhenjiang. The threat to Nanking forced China to ask for peace, so China was forced to conclude the first unequal treaty in its history with a colonial European power.

On August 29, 1842, the Qing Empire capitulated by signing the Treaty of Nanjing, which provided for the opening of five ports for English trade, including Shanghai and Canton, the payment of an indemnity of 21 million silver yuan (about half was compensation for opium), the transfer of England to the island of Syangan (aka the island Victoria, part of the territory of present-day Hong Kong), to liquidate the Chinese trading corporation, which had a monopoly on intermediary trade with foreigners, and to establish a new customs tariff beneficial to England. The winner showed nobility: he promised to stop the import of poison. However, the Treaty of Nanjing contained a provision on consular proceedings (that is, on exemption from Chinese law, extraterritoriality) not only for British citizens, but also for the Chinese who work for them. Thus, the vanquished were deprived of any opportunity to control whether England kept its promise. France and the United States soon imposed their treaties on China, following the English model.

In 1843, the Treaty of Nanjing was supplemented by a protocol, according to which foreigners were granted the right of extraterritoriality in the settlements they created, where a system of government not subordinated to the Chinese authorities was established, and foreign troops and police were kept. The local Chinese authorities in open ports were not only to allow the system of these foreign settlements, but also to allocate land and houses for them for a "fair" rent. Foreigners were completely excluded from the jurisdiction of Chinese courts, consular jurisdiction was established for them. Following England, unequal treaties with China were concluded by the United States and France (1844).

In 1856, the 2nd Opium War begins. The European powers hoped to "squeeze" new privileges out of the decrepit empire, in particular, to ensure the free export of cheap and disenfranchised labor - coolies, who were supposed to replace black African slaves. In March 1857, France entered the war, Canton fell in December, and Tianjin fell in May 1858. After fierce fighting at the Dagu forts (almost the only case of serious resistance by the Qing army), the Anglo-French troops opened the way to Beijing. Initially, peace was signed in 1858, but soon China annulled the treaties with France and Britain. Having defeated the elite imperial cavalry on September 21, 1860, the Allied troops entered the capital, where they burned the palace along with countless treasures of ancient culture. What was taken out during the robbery was preserved for mankind in museums and private collections in Europe.

Opium served as a battering ram to open up the Chinese market to European trade while preventing the formation of a competitive industry (and a sane government that could modernize the country). But as the Europeans became masters of the Celestial Empire, the specific orientation of trade aroused growing criticism, especially from their own manufacturers. "The obstacle is not at all the lack of demand in China for English goods. The price of opium swallows up all the silver, to the great detriment of the general trade of the Chinese. The manufacturers have no prospects of trade with China," such comments appeared in the English and American press. Opium in the European trade with China began to gradually displace the "normal" goods. But it was too late. The subjects of the Qing Empire, no longer able to exist without a daily dose, began to cultivate opium poppy themselves - instead of tea and rice, which had to be imported by the end of the century. The overthrow of the Manchu dynasty in 1911 did not bring any significant changes to this situation.

Even in the middle of the 20th century in China, which was in a state of continuous civil strife, a million hectares were occupied with opium, and only the official number of drug addicts was 20 million people.

Taiping rebellion

By the middle of the nineteenth century, the Chinese economy was already heavily dependent on English imports, a large share of which was the import of opium, which in 1850 reached a figure of 52,925 cases. In addition, at this time, China was struck by natural disasters: floods, droughts and crop failures, which destabilized an already tense social situation. The Qing administration did nothing in this situation. Economic problems, military defeats from foreigners, which greatly undermined the prestige of the country, and anti-Manchu sentiments among the people eventually resulted in widespread unrest throughout the country, but especially in the south. Southern China surrendered to the last Qing conquerors; at the same time, he was the first to experience Western influence.

In 1850 in the south began the largest uprising in the history of modern China - the uprising of the Taipings. Its leader was the head of the secret anti-Manchu society Baimandi Hui (Society for Worshiping the Supreme Lord) and part-time village teacher Hong Xiuquan. At one time he tried to pass the exam and enter the civil service (albeit unsuccessfully), he created an eclectic ideology, mixing the ideals of pre-Confucian utopianism and the principles of Protestant Christianity. As Qing officials said indignantly, the Taipings rejected Confucius in favor of the New Testament. In addition, the Taipings also prohibited the smoking of opium. Their leader, Hum Xutsuzn, compared the smoking pipe to a musket, from which a person shoots at himself. The Taipings seriously counted on the Christian solidarity of the Europeans.

The society preached equality and fraternity, for the justification of which some ideas of Christianity were used. Hong Xiuquan saw the ultimate goal of the struggle in the creation of the "Taiping tian-guo" ("Heavenly welfare state"), which is why his followers began to be called Taipings. They promoted and put into practice the ideas of egalitarian distribution, which attracted mainly disadvantaged people to the Taiping. But their ranks also included representatives of the merchant bourgeoisie and landlords, attracted by the anti-Manchu orientation of the movement.

The uprising developed successfully. Thousands of those dissatisfied with the authorities and the Manchus poured into Hong Xiuquan's organization. His followers formed an army that guarded the Taiping lands not only from bandits and the Qing army, but also from detachments of other rebels and secret societies. In 1851, the rebels captured the province of Guizhou and proclaimed the creation of the Taiping Tianguo. The head of the movement, Hong Xiuquan, received the title of the heavenly king (tian bak), five other leaders of the movement began to be called kings (vans). Thus, as in other peasant movements, the Chinese peasants did not go further than establishing a "just" monarchy.

The Taipings paid great attention to military affairs and soon created a combat-ready army, distinguished by strict discipline. In March 1853, the Taiping troops took Nanjing, the capital of China during the Ming Dynasty, which was proclaimed the capital of the "heavenly state". Shortly after this event, a document called "Land System of the Celestial Dynasty" was made public, the meaning of which went beyond its official name. In practice, it was the program of the anti-feudal peasant revolution. This document provided for the distribution of land on an equal footing, the release of peasants from rent to landowners, the provision of equal rights for women, up to equal access to public service with men, the state maintenance of the disabled, measures to combat corruption, etc. In addition, idolatry, Confucianism were prohibited, and Physical punishment.

But despite all the successes of the Taipings, they failed to create a stable state with effective governance. Soon the leaders of the movement were mired in internecine conflicts and corruption. In addition, the British and French forces in China preferred to deal with the albeit weak Qing administration rather than with the Taiping chiefs. Therefore, in the end, the West helped China in suppressing the Taiping uprising, which lasted about 14 years and claimed the lives of about 30 million people. Similar uprisings took place in the north (Nian) and in the southwest (Muslim uprising), which again demonstrated the weakness of the Qing empire.

The power of the Taipings in part of the territory of China lasted until 1864. The main reasons for its death, apart from some strategic miscalculations of the Taiping leaders and a split among them, were the intervention of the Western powers and the internal decomposition of the Taiping movement. The Taiping armies lost their former combat effectiveness, and the Taipings as a whole lost the broad support of the people. They were defeated under the blows of the combined troops of the Manchu dynasty and the Chinese landowners, supported by the interventionists. Nevertheless, the Taiping uprising was of great historical significance, it was the forerunner of the Chinese bourgeois-democratic revolution, the harbinger of the national liberation struggle. After the suppression of the Taiping uprising, the system of two governors in the provinces (military and civilian) was abolished and local power was concentrated in one hand. In the structure of the provincial administration, committees for the restoration of order, which arose in the last period of the struggle against the Taiping movement, consisted of the main provincial officials, namely: the treasurer, judicial officer, salt controller and grain quartermaster, were entrenched. The governors received the right to execute, without prior sanction from above, persons convicted of belonging to secret societies aimed at overthrowing the existing system, and "open rebels and robbers."



1. China under the rule of the Ming Dynasty. By the beginning of the XVI century. China was centralized state with a monarchical form of government, the predominance of pre-capitalist relations in the economy and a fairly ramified social structure, in general terms, formed in antiquity and in the early Middle Ages.

In the field of foreign policy, China focused on seizing the lands of neighboring states, primarily in Central Asia. No permanent contacts and ties with the European powers and with Russia have yet been established.

The state system of the Ming Empire (the Chinese Ming dynasty came to power in the country after the overthrow of the Mongol Yuan dynasty in the second half of the 14th century) was a typical oriental despotism. There were no institutions of a class-representative monarchy in the country, therefore, there was a constant struggle of various groups at the imperial court, primarily for influence on the ruler, who retained the right to have a decisive vote in making any significant decisions, although he himself did not directly delve into the state affairs, relying on the competence of their officials.

A significant place in China at that time was occupied by the institution of eunuchs, which could only be ethnic Chinese. It was formed at the expense of the children of the poor, whose parents were unable to feed them and therefore sold them to the imperial court. Only members of the imperial family could use the services of eunuchs. The emperor himself in some years had up to three thousand eunuchs, the princes - up to thirty, and the children of the emperor - up to twenty people. During the reign of the Mings, at least 10 thousand eunuchs (and their total number, according to some sources, reached 100 thousand), and one of them, under the last Ming emperor, actually ruled the state on his behalf. Some eunuchs held high positions in the provinces, being there governors, military leaders, heads of city administrations, etc. But not all of them had this status. Most of the eunuchs led a more than modest lifestyle, constantly being humiliated and insulted by their masters. The main rivals of the eunuchs in the struggle for influence on the emperor were members of the Palace Secretariat, individual representatives of which sometimes pushed them away from the real levers of government.

In the role of a kind of opposition at that time were officials from the Special Chamber of Inspectors, supported by major Chinese scientists united in the organization Hanmin(some kind of Academy of Sciences). In their reports to the emperor, they often denounced the arbitrariness of officials at various levels in the country, both in the capital and in the regions, advocated the modernization of the economy, military reform, and so on. Very often, for this kind of thought, they were persecuted, while using the sympathy and support of part of the urban population.

In the Chinese economy, the agricultural sector remained predominant, reaching by the beginning of the 16th century. quite a significant level of development. The peasants collected high yields of rice - the main food of the Chinese, although the tools of labor remained rather primitive. Some peasants learned how to design special water-lifting machines, used fertilizers to increase crop yields, and applied new technologies for growing rice, for example, the nesting method of planting it, seed vernalization, etc. In addition to rice growing, Chinese peasants achieved great success in growing cotton, which made it possible to satisfy the needs of the population in various fabrics.

In China at that time, there were two main types of land ownership - public and private(which could rather be called conditionally private, since formally it was also in the supreme ownership of the emperor). Moreover, the share of the latter throughout the XVI century. decreased. The lands of the peasants gradually passed into the hands of large landowners, usurers, and also officials. A significant part of the land became the direct property of the imperial court.

In Ming China, a peculiar system of taxes and duties was developed, based on both in-kind and cash collections, which was carried out twice a year. Taxes were higher on public lands than on conditionally private lands. The desire of the state to increase taxes often led to sharp contradictions between taxpayers and officials responsible for collecting them. Taxes were calculated in rice, taxes in silver took root only at the end of the 16th century. Along with silver bars, measured in lians, from the beginning of the 16th century. Weni copper coins were introduced into circulation, which had holes in the middle and various denominations.

As for the cities, the number of their inhabitants was many times less than in the countryside. The main occupations of the townspeople were crafts and trade. In the production of fabrics, urban artisans used machines that were quite advanced for that time, including those with a water drive. During the construction of buildings, devices similar to a crane were used. The surviving buildings of that time and today are admired for their perfection and beauty. Chinese shipbuilders, who knew how to build large and durable ships, also achieved technical success.

In the area of ​​trade, there a large number of merchant companies that linked the country into a single economic space. China at the beginning of the 16th century. there were more than 30 major fairs, several trading ports worked, of which the most famous was in Nanjing. Chinese manufactories, as well as gold and silver, were sold to other countries, and spices, ivory, medicines and a number of other goods were supplied to China, in turn.

China in the Age of the Greats geographical discoveries became the object of the colonial aspirations of the European powers. The "pioneers" were the Portuguese, who already in 1516 sent their ships here. The envoy of the Portuguese king even managed to penetrate into the interior of China, but after a series of skirmishes between Portuguese ships and Chinese, he and his entourage were expelled from the country.

In 1531, a naval battle took place between Chinese and Portuguese ships, which ended in the defeat of the latter. China then closed its ports to foreign ships. Nevertheless, Portugal managed to establish its colony of Macao (Maomen) on Chinese territory, and its Catholic Jesuit missionaries were given the opportunity to preach in China.

2. China in the first half of the 17th century At the end of the XVI - beginning of the XVII centuries. In one of the important trade and cultural centers of southern China, the city of Wuxi, an organization was formed on the basis of the Donglin Academy, whose members demanded further reforms in all aspects of the life of Ming China. Their program in many ways resembled the requirements of the reformers of the 16th century. and was compiled by officials exiled here from Beijing for their views in opposition to the government. The head of the organization was a dignitary gu xiangcheng, relied in its activities on the support of the wealthy residents of Wuxi and some shengs. A significant place in their demands was occupied by the issues of reforming the state apparatus, strengthening the role of the emperor in direct control of the country, as well as economic transformations - transferring state manufactories and workshops to private owners to increase their productivity and quality of goods produced, ending the policy of seizing peasant lands by large owners, streamlining the taxation system, etc.

During 1620-1624 gg. reformers managed to come to power in Beijing and try to implement their program requirements in practice. However, the former palace elite managed to consolidate around itself the opponents of the reforms and eliminate their competitors from power, many of whom were then subjected to repression. The practice of embezzlement of funds from the state treasury, the seizure of peasant lands, an increase in taxes and personal duties continued. The situation was further aggravated by the systematic occurrence of natural disasters and the increasingly deteriorating international position of China. However, the peasant uprisings, which gradually developed into a large-scale war against the ruling regime, became especially dangerous for the Minsk authorities.

In the first half of the XVII century. continued European expansion in China. So, Spain, after the capture of the Philippines, destroyed on about. Luzon has more than 20,000 Chinese subjects engaged in trade there. A similar action was repeated again in 1639. In the 20s. 17th century Dutch ships appeared off the coast of China, attacking the Penghuledao Islands and seizing part of the island. Taiwan (Formosa). However, they failed to gain a foothold in mainland China. In parallel with the Dutch, Great Britain also showed expansionist aspirations in this area. The British penetrated into the Guangzhou area and obtained from the Chinese government the right to conduct their transit trade here. From China, Europeans first of all began to export silk and porcelain, and import tobacco and firearms.

Chinese authorities continued to ban foreigners from entering the country. The only exceptions were Catholic missionaries of Portuguese, German and Italian origin. Their role in that period is difficult to assess unambiguously. On the one hand, they created an ideological ground for the further colonial enslavement of China, and on the other hand, they introduced the population to the achievements of Western civilization and helped to introduce them into everyday life.

3. Peasants' War 20-40s 17th century Peasant uprisings against the ruling regime in China began in 1622 in the province of Shandong under the leadership of secret society "White Lotus" and soon spread over a fairly large area.

The government troops sent here to suppress the uprising at first managed to win several victories over the rebels, but soon they again stepped up their operations, now in the provinces of Shaanxi and Gansu. Partisan detachments arose there, consisting of peasants, runaway soldiers of the Minsk army and the urban poor. The rebels with particular cruelty cracked down on landowners and usurers, in whom they saw main reason all your troubles. Talented leaders emerged from among the rebels Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong. The government troops were no longer able to cope with them and the authorities made some concessions, hoping to buy time to regroup their forces. The rebels, realizing this, also carried out the redeployment of their units and by the summer 1631 managed to unite under common management 36 partisan detachments. In the spring of 1632 they crossed the river. Huang He and began to prepare for a campaign against the capital.

The local population willingly helped the rebels, and their ranks quickly replenished with new supporters. It was possible to stop the rebels only on the outskirts of Beijing, where government troops were able to defeat them and push them back to the river. Huang He, from where they went to the south of China. Then the peasant detachments began to operate in the territories of the provinces of Henan, Hubei and Sichuan, where they also met with the support of the local population. However, then the rebels again divided into separate detachments and fought independently. Only in 1635, on the initiative of Li Zicheng, the commanders of several detachments again joined forces and decided on a plan for a general offensive and the capture of the city of Guide. However, having captured this city, the rebels split up again - some of them moved to the province of Hunan, and others - to the province of Shaanxi, where this movement originated at one time. One of the leaders of the uprising - Zhang Xianzhong - sent his supporters to the province of Jiangxi.

A very unfavorable situation has developed for the government, since the uprising has already engulfed most of China. In an effort to seize the initiative again, it withdrew part of the troops from the Manchurian direction, where armed clashes were continuing at that time, and announced 1636 d. an amnesty for the participants in the uprising in the event of their voluntary return to their places of permanent residence and the cessation of the armed struggle. The leaders of the rebels were promised complete forgiveness and enrollment in imperial army to officer positions. A special imperial edict announced a reduction in taxes from the population.

The actions carried out soon led to the first positive results for the government. Many peasants returned home and began peaceful labor. The rest began to suffer defeat everywhere. Some of the leaders of the rebels, including Zhang Xianzhong, went over to the side of the Mings, others, such as Li Zicheng, whose detachment was defeated in 1638, went to the hard-to-reach mountainous area on the border of the provinces of Henan and Shaanxi.

It seemed that the peasant war finally ended with the defeat of the rebels, but this was only an illusion. As early as 1639, peasant uprisings again engulfed many regions of China, and some representatives of the ruling strata, dissatisfied with the Ming, even began to join them. Zhang Xianzhong and Li Zicheng again led the movement. Campaigns were undertaken in the provinces of Henan and Shaanxi, during which the rebels managed to create a fairly combat-ready army. Li Zicheng fortified himself in the capital of Shaanxi, the city of Xian, and Zhang Xianzhong, in the city of Chengdu, which was the center of Sichuan province.

At the beginning of 1644, Li Zicheng decided to march on Beijing. In two columns, his troops moved from Xi'an, with the support of the broadest sections of the population. In April of the same year, without actually meeting any resistance, the rebels entered the capital. Emperor Chun Zhen, unable to endure such a shame, committed suicide by hanging himself in a park gazebo near his residence, having previously killed his daughter and several concubines with his own hands. Together with him, as a sign of devotion, about 80 thousand people committed suicide.

Taking power into their own hands, Li Zicheng's supporters appealed to the people, calling for calm and the continuation of a normal life. Several military leaders who fought against the rebels were executed, as well as some senior officials, especially hated by the people. Wealthy people were given large cash payments. Only the disgraced officials, who were persecuted under the Mings, were returned to public service with the order to "govern fairly and not oppress the people."

Li Zicheng was proclaimed the new emperor, and his inner circle received the highest positions in the state. China began to be ruled by a specially created council of rebel leaders, in which, in addition to the new emperor, the former blacksmith Liu Zumin and the poet Li Xin, who came from a wealthy Chinese family, played a leading role.

The new state apparatus was built according to traditional Chinese patterns of eastern despotism and relied in its activities on the reorganized army, in which mobilization was carried out and where strict discipline reigned. The land in the areas controlled by the rebels passed into the hands of the peasants, many taxes and taxes were removed from them. All this at first aroused great enthusiasm among the peasants and urban artisans.

However, the Ming government army, commanded by Wu Sangui, who was on the Manchu front during the fall of Beijing, did not recognize the new government. Choosing between the rebels and the former Chinese elite, who demanded that he turn to the Manchus for help as the "lesser of evils", he decided to recognize himself as a Manchu vassal and opened the gates in the Great Wall of China for their access to Chinese territory. The Manchus did not immediately believe in the seriousness of the intentions of the Chinese commander. Eight times he turned to them for help, sending his ambassadors to the location of the enemy, then he personally went to the headquarters of the Manchus, recognized himself as their vassal and shaved half his head as a sign of humility. Only after that, the combined troops of the Manchus and Wu Sangui easily overcame the resistance of Li Zicheng's troops, and in June 1644 Beijing came under their control.

4. Manchuria before 1644 At the beginning of the XVI century. in the territory that now makes up Northeast China, the Manchu tribes, who were descendants of the Jurchens, lived at the beginning of the 12th century. who created their statehood in the form of the Jin Empire, which soon fell under the blows of the Mongol troops. It was the entry of this territory, almost for a century, into the orbit of Chinese civilization that allowed the Manchus to partially assimilate elements of a previously alien culture.

Their main occupation was nomadic pastoralism and raids on the neighboring, more civilizationally developed territories of Ming China, from which they were separated by the Great Wall of China. However, in the end, they, like many other neighboring peoples, were forced to recognize vassal dependence on the Chinese emperor.

At the end of the XVI century. south of the Amur and west of the Ussuri, a tribal union arose, headed by a talented military leader and politician Nurhatsi (1559-1626), which at first not all Manchurian tribes wanted to obey. The main task of the Manchus was to prepare for the conquest of the lands that lay south of their possessions, for which they needed to create a strong and well-trained army. To increase its numbers, men from the captured and devastated regions of Primorye were used.

The military organization of the Manchus developed in 1601 g. and basically had a tradition of seasonal hunting, in which adult men of any of the genera took part. Nurkhatsi divided his warriors into four detachments (banners), at the head of which were placed commanders-ezheni. In turn, each banner was divided into smaller units - nyuro, of which there were thirty. Each nuro consisted of 300 soldiers (later their number decreased to 200, and after the conquest of China - to 100). Then when military organization began to expand, there were eight banners. Thus arose the famous "eight banner" army, which was destined to play a prominent role in subsequent events.

Since 1609, the Manchus stopped paying tribute to the Ming emperor. The result of these processes was the formation of 1616 d., at the convention 16 Manchurian tribes, Hou-jin states(Late Jin Empire). Thus, the continuity with the former state of Jin was emphasized. The subjects of the new state were called Manchus.

Nurhaci soon began an armed struggle against the Ming dynasty, having managed to win control over the Liaodong Peninsula and some adjacent territories from it in 1618. After that, part of the Chinese and Mongol troops, which were also divided into eight banners, went over to the side of the Manchus. Each banner was divided into inner and outer parts. The outer one was made up directly by the soldiers, and the inner one was made up of personally dependent people who followed the banner during campaigns and performed various duties. In order to replenish the eight-banner troops, every three years a census of the male population was conducted in the Manchu lands, and those who evaded were severely punished.

At the same time, in an effort to strengthen the rear, Nurkhatsi began a campaign against southern Mongolia. The first major battle took place in 1619 and ended with the defeat of the Mongols. However, realizing that he could not conquer all of Mongolia at once, the Manchu ruler decided to subjugate it by fragmentation and conquest in parts, gradually.

In 1626 Nurkhatsi died and his son Abakhai ascended the throne, continuing his father's work. At first, the Khorchin (Tsitsikar) principality was subordinated, then in 1635 Chahars, headed by the all-Mongolian Ligden Khan. The Manchus forcibly stole the able-bodied population from the conquered territories and included them in their eight-banner army. The defeat of Ligden Khan allowed Abakhai in 1636 to proclaim himself the All-Mongolian Khan. In the same year, he renamed his state Qing (i.e. "Pure").

Southern Mongolia became an "outer" vassal of Khan Abakhai. On its territory, freedom of movement of the population, trade with China and other Mongolian lands that remained independent were prohibited, the purchase of weapons was strictly regulated, marriages between the southern Mongols, Khalkhas and Oirats were prohibited, control was established over the lamaist clergy.

Repeatedly, starting from 1618, the Manchus invaded the territory of Korea. At the end of 1636, their army, numbering up to 140 thousand people, captured and plundered Seoul, and soon the ruler of Korea recognized himself as their vassal, sending the heir to the throne as a hostage to the Manchus. However, they failed to achieve the participation of Korean troops in the war against China. I had to limit myself to receiving a large tribute.

In 1643, Abakhai died and his young son Shunzhi became the bogdykhan. This event became a prologue to a new stage in the history of Manchuria - the transformation of a relatively small state in terms of territory and population into the most privileged part of the Chinese empire, and its ruler into the first Manchu emperor on the Chinese throne. This happened after the troops of Wu Sangui in 1644 continued to persecute the supporters of Li Zicheng, and the Manchus remained in Beijing. The most influential of the Manchu princes, Durgan (Dorgon, Rui wang), initiated the proclamation of Shunzhi as the Chinese emperor, becoming regent under him. From that moment until 1911, the power of the foreign Manchu Qing dynasty was established in China.

5. Manchu conquest of China. After the capture of Beijing on June 6, 1644 and the announcement of the city as the new capital of the Qing state instead of Mukden, Durgan sent one part of his troops to help Wu Sangui, and the other to capture the province of Shandong. On October 30, Shunzhi was again proclaimed emperor of the Qing state.

For about a year, peasant detachments resisted the Manchus in the Xi'an and Tongguan regions, but nevertheless were forced to go south, crossing the river. Yangtze. In Hubei province, Li Zicheng and many of his associates were killed. The peasant war ended with the defeat of the rebels.

During the capture of Beijing, some of the surviving members of the Ming imperial family welcomed the Manchus, while others, hoping to still regain lost influence, went to the Yangtze Valley, where in the old capital, Nanjing, with the support of the local elite, one of its representatives, Fu wang (Zhu Yusun), was proclaimed the new emperor of China. Thus, this part of the Mings tried to resist the Manchus by uniting patriotic forces around the figure of the new emperor. However, this step was not supported by all representatives of the Ming dynasty who ended up in Nanjing, and they put forward an alternative candidate for the imperial throne. As a result, the anti-Manchu forces were mired in internal squabbles, and it was not possible to create a united front to repulse the foreigners.

The Manchus first captured Yangzhou, killing up to 800 thousand people during its assault, and then moved towards Nanjing. The emperor proclaimed there fled with his retinue (later he was captured, sent to Beijing and killed there), and part of the local elite decided to go under the control of the Qing.

The second center of resistance to the Manchus developed in the regions of southern China, which were not covered by peasant unrest and were relatively developed and prosperous economically. Here, under the leadership of the military leader Shi Kefa, Li Zicheng's nephew Li Guo, and also Li Dingguo, armed detachments of peasants and townspeople were formed who fought against the establishment of Manchu domination. In some places, as, for example, in the southeastern coastal provinces, they were joined by some Chinese landowners and wealthy merchants. In 1645, having captured the Guide fortress (Henan province), the Manchus managed to unite their two armies together and throw them to the Huai River. By this time, about half of the territory of the Ming Empire was already under their control.

In the conquered territories, the Manchus were engaged in the redistribution of landed property, dividing them into imperial, princely, "eight banner" and simply state estates. They were processed personally by dependent peasants and slaves, who belonged not only to the nobility, but also to ordinary Manchu soldiers. As a sign of obedience, the male Chinese population was forced to shave off half of the head and braid a long pigtail from the remaining hair. In northern China, in an effort to win the sympathy of the population, the Manchus abolished the additional taxes imposed by the Ming in the last period of their rule.

During 1648-1652. several uprisings broke out in the territories already conquered by the Manchus, the largest of which took place in Nanchang, Zhejiang, Fujian, Hunan, Sichuan and a number of other places. In the north of China, unrest swept the provinces of Gansu, Shaanxi and Shanxi and were supported by some Mongol khans.

Sometimes the rebels managed to win back quite large cities from the Manchus. So, they took the city of Jiangling, located south of the Yangtze, during the eighty-day defense of which the Manchus killed up to 75 thousand people and about 100 thousand, not wanting to surrender, committed suicide there. The city of Ganzhou was burned to the ground and up to 100,000 people died there. In 1646, the inhabitants of Sichuan stubbornly resisted, and only at the beginning of 1647 did the Manchus manage to pacify them.

Realizing that without the support of the Chinese elite, the situation could not be kept under control, the Manchus made some concessions to them, attracted the Mongolian cavalry detachments to their side, rearmed their troops with the help of Europeans and continued to conquer China. Capturing the river valley The Yangtze, the Manchus moved to capture South China.

At the end of 1673, Wu Sangui, dissatisfied with the Qings, who became a prince under them, raised an uprising in the controlled lands, refusing to obey central authorities in Beijing and declaring the restoration of Ming traditions there. He called on the Chinese to rise up to fight the Manchus under his leadership. However, the reputation of a traitor, firmly entrenched in the public mind, did not allow Wu Sangui to become a consolidating figure in the anti-Manchu liberation movement. Then he decides to create his own state in the territory of Southwest China. In this undertaking, he was supported by two more principalities, so the outbreak of war in historiography is also called the "war of three tributary princes." At first, they were successful and under the control of the new formation turned out to be 6 out of 15 Chinese provinces. In March 1678, Wu Sangui was proclaimed emperor under the name of Zhou Di, but soon died. He was succeeded by his grandson - Wu Shifan, who turned out to be less successful in confronting the Manchus than his grandfather. In 1681, the Qing managed to liquidate the Zhou empire. Thus, the only Chinese territory outside their control was the Zheng state in Taiwan, which was captured only in 1683.

6. State system of China in mid-seventeenth V. Having come to power, the Manchus in general terms retained the previous principles of the state structure of China, which had developed earlier. The changes affected mainly the social structure of society. The estate system now consisted of five main groups - three dominant and two oppressed, subordinate.

The emperor, formally possessing unlimited powers, did not directly rule the country himself. The supreme body, which decided the most important matters, was the Supreme Imperial Council, which included the emperor's relatives and senior dignitaries. It was followed by executive structures - the Imperial Secretariat, departments of foreign affairs, taxes, ceremonies, military affairs, criminal, public works, censors, etc. The eunuchs, who enjoyed great power under the previous dynasty, until the end of the 19th century. practically relegated to secondary roles and could no longer influence the process of government decision-making.

The Manchus became the dominant nationality in China, from which the highest elite, both civilian and military, was formed. The Manchus considered it humiliating to engage in productive labor and trade. That's why main area their activity was the state and military service. Upon reaching the age of majority, the sons of military personnel, the Manchus, received state salaries. For the same crime, the Manchus and the Chinese were different kinds punishment. Since by 1644 there were only 300,000 Manchus and 300 million Chinese, then, fearing rapid assimilation and absorption, the Manchus and Chinese were forbidden to enter into mixed marriages.

China was divided into governorships, within which their own financial system and armed formations were created. This was done primarily to fragment and divide the population.

In order to strengthen their power in the eyes of those who professed Confucianism, the Manchus, who had previously mostly professed shamanism, retained this teaching as the official state ideology, and the Manchu bogdykhan began to perform the same ritual functions as his Chinese predecessors. One of the first steps in this direction was to give Confucius the title of "Kung Tzu, the ancient Teacher, the great and glorious, the most perfect sage." Upon the accession of the new emperor to the throne, he ordered his subjects to make sacrifices at the family tombs and at the tomb of Confucius, gave an obligation to honor his predecessor and worship his spirit.

Moreover, in an effort to show the continuity of the institution of monarchical power, the Manchu dynasty worshiped the spirit of the last Ming emperor Chun Zhen. Even the trunk of the tree from which he hanged himself was preserved as a sacred relic. The Manchus adopted the Chinese language, although formally Manchu remained the language of the emperors for the entire period of their reign. The motto of the board of each of them was indicated by special hieroglyphs. It was most often by the motto of the board, and not by a personal name, that this or that Chinese emperor entered history.

During the Qing period, they ruled emperors: Shunzhi (Good rule), personal name Fu-min; Kangxi (Prosperous and Radiant), personal name Xuan-ye; Yongzheng (Harmonious and Fair), personal name Yuan-zheng; Qianlong (Unwavering and Glorious), Hong-li's personal name; Jiaqing (Beautiful and Joyful), Yun-yan's personal name; Daoguang (Purposeful and Brilliant), Mian-ning's personal name; Hsien-feng (General abundance), personal name Yi Zhu; Tongzhi (Joint Rule), personal name Zai Chun; Guangxu (Brilliant Heritage), personal name Zai Tian and Xuantong (Universal Unity), personal name Pu Yi.

Years in the Chinese calendar were counted from the year of accession to the throne of the next emperor and up to the end of his reign. The succession went only along male line, the heir to the throne was not announced in advance, and he did not have to be the eldest son of the emperor. A woman had only the right to be a regent for an emperor who had not reached the age of majority.

The emperor had, in addition to the main (senior) wife, two junior (secondary), as well as a large number of concubines (in some years their number reached two hundred and eighty). They made up the imperial harem, which, as in the Ming period, continued to be monitored by eunuchs. Under the Manchus, up to the second half of XIX V. their influence was greatly weakened and their main function was to monitor the harem.

When presenting his subjects to the emperor, they had to perform a special ceremony “sai gui ju kou” - kneel in front of him three times, each time hitting the floor with their foreheads three times. All foreign ambassadors who arrived in Beijing were considered tributaries there. A special humiliating procedure was also developed for them - at the command of the manager of the ceremonial, during an audience with the "son of Heaven", who was considered the ruler not only of China, but of the rest of the world, they had to kneel down and bow to the ground three times, and this should have happened three times during the audience. Only in the second half of the XIX century. this ceremony was replaced by a more simplified one - three low bows without kneeling.

The princes of the imperial house were divided into direct descendants of the founder of the dynasty, wearing a yellow belt as a badge of distinction and descendants lateral branches that had a red belt. TO late XIX V. their total number reached six thousand. Other relatives of the emperor, depending on the degree of kinship, were divided into 12 categories, and officials who were not relatives of the emperor - into 9 and also had special external insignia.

The second most important social stratum in Qing China was the Chinese aristocrats, but even the most influential of them could not be compared in legal status with the Manchu nobility. Scientists had the monopoly right to occupy positions of officials shen zi (shen jing). They did not submit to the jurisdiction of local chiefs, had the right to pay off corporal punishment for committed offenses, and were partially exempted from paying taxes. Their status was not hereditary. Shenshi could become anyone, except for a representative of the “low” class. Shenypi's privileges extended to all their relatives not only in a straight line, but also along the lateral lines.

In addition to obtaining a position in the state apparatus by passing special exams, one could simply buy it. The Manchus considered it possible to keep this system, called kongju, as having proven itself over a long period of Chinese history, although in fact it practical significance in identifying talented administrators was negligible.

estate "commoners" (liang ming) united the bulk of the people of China. It consisted of farmers, artisans and merchants. All landowners who did not belong to the nobility belonged to the farmers.

At the bottom of the social ladder were "lower" engaged in "non-prestigious" professions - actors, itinerant musicians, monks, servants and slaves. In terms of property, this included people with the most different levels income - from the rich to the poor poor.

Representatives of other ethnic groups living on the territory of China at that time, in fact, had no rights and were obliged to fulfill the duties that were imposed on them by representatives of the ruling strata.

The most oppressed were the slaves, many of whom were women. They, in turn, were divided into public and private. Slavery was eternal, only sometimes, by decree of the emperor, they could be freed. The children of male and female slaves also inherited their status.

Each lower social group also had its own external differences, both in dress and in demeanor.

7. The economic situation of China in the second half of the XVII century. The coming to power of the Manchus could not but lead to certain changes in the economic sphere of the life of Chinese society. Not having real possibility to take ownership of all land in China, the Manchu elite left most of it to Chinese owners. The Manchus allotted land for themselves in the capital province of Zhili, as well as in a number of other areas with a compact population of the Chinese population. The territory of Manchuria itself (within the borders until 1644) became a kind of protected area, a domain where the lands were owned by the Bogdykhan, and ethnic Chinese were forbidden to be there.

The state also owned forests, uncultivated lands, as well as territories where educational establishments and places of worship.