In Russia in 1896 there were 52 higher educational institutions (excluding Finland). In 1893-1894. 25,166 people studied there, of which 983 were women, i.e. 4%. In 1896 in primary school 3,801,133 people studied in a population of 126,369,000. “Based on these data,” states the reference book “Russia: encyclopedic Dictionary", - you can take 3 as an indicator primary education for all of Russia." For the United States, the figure was 21 (p. 400).

Detailed information about education is provided by the statistical reference book “Russia 1913”. One of the reports cited in the reference book said: the general census of the empire in 1897 found only 21% literate. This percentage rises in the Vistula region to 30.5%; in European Russia itself, excluding the Vistula provinces and the Caucasus, it is 22.9%... but in 24 of the 50 provinces of European Russia, the number of literate people further decreased, not reaching 20%. Among them were a number of central provinces with a native Russian population: Vologda, Voronezh, Kaluga, Kursk, Oryol, Penza, Simbirsk, Smolensk, Tambov and, finally, Pskov, which in 1897 occupied the last place in terms of population literacy (14.6% ). The three Baltic provinces gave a high percentage of literate people, 70-80%, followed by the capital provinces, St. Petersburg - 55%, Moscow - 40%. In the remaining provinces of European Russia, less than 30% were able to read.

G. Vernadsky has slightly different data, although it does not significantly diverge from the above. It also indicates dynamics. He writes: “On the date of the 1897 census, only 24% of the empire’s population over 10 years old could read and write. In 1914, there were already about 45% of similar persons” (p. 252). “The number of primary school students from 1894 to 1914 increased from 3,275,362 to 8 million.” He also adds: "In Russian universities in 1912 there were 137,000 students of both sexes” (pp. 277, 253).

Indeed, by 1913, amounts for education increased, reaching 4.6% of the budget (143,074 thousand rubles). With the then total population of the empire being 170.9 million people. this meant an increase in education costs to 84 kopecks. per capita, that is, an increase of 3.4 times. In general, according to modern updated data, by the beginning of the century, about 30% of the adult population was literate. Again, we must keep in mind that in the main countries of Europe and America 90% of the population was literate. And Russia, in terms of education, practically lagged behind all European countries, the USA and Japan.

Literature. Some may find the following data interesting. What kind of literature was produced at the end of the 19th century? It turns out that over the five-year period (1890-1894) the topics of books were distributed as follows: theology - 13.13%, works of literature ( fiction in modern times) - 12.19, reference books - 9.13, textbooks - 8.43, medicine - 7, Russian and general history - 6.29, publications for the people - 5.22, political sciences, finance, statistics, commerce, etc. - 4.88, law - 3.44, publications for children - 3.16, natural science - 2.71... philosophy - 0.63%. The theologians clearly beat the philosophers. They continued to beat them in 1913. This year, 1,764 titles were published on religion with a circulation of 5,731,935 copies, and on philosophy - 111 titles with a circulation of 198,801 copies. .

The science. There are no less myths and legends about the achievements of Russian scientists and national patriots than there are about the literacy of the Russian people. Some, like V. Medinsky, trying to exaggerate their number, also count those scientists who emigrated from Russia. Others, despite their anti-Semitism, classify Jews as Russians, for example Ilya Mechnikov, or Russified French or Germans (i.e. immigrants who, according to their logic, should be classified as scientists in the countries where they were born). Moreover, neither one nor the other stipulates the criteria on the basis of which this or that person is classified as a scientist.

In fact, the situation with science and scientists in Russia before the Bolshevik Revolution was very unfavorable. An objective picture in this area can be gleaned from Charles Moray’s unique monograph “Achievements of Mankind,” in which he analyzed the situation in science in the main countries of the world from 800 BC. until 1950. The technology of its analysis and calculation is described in detail in my monograph “Society: Progress and Power”, so I will not repeat it here. I will give only the results of his analysis of Russian scientists, limiting himself to the period before 1917. He identified in a number of scientific fields scientists who made major discoveries. The picture we get is as follows. In the field of astronomy, out of 124 scientists, only one Russian appears - M. Lomonosov (thanks to his research into the atmosphere around Venus). In biology, out of 193 scientists, two are Russian (Dm. Ivanovsky and F. Levene). Chemistry: out of 204 scientists, four are Russian (D. Mendeleev, A. Butlerov, V. Ostwald, V. Markovnikov). Geography: out of 85 scientists, one is Russian (E. Lenz). Physics: out of 218 - two Russians (P. Lebedev, A. Popov). Mathematics: out of 191, four are Russian (N. Lobachevsky, S. Kovalevskaya, P. Chebyshev, A. Markov). Medicine: out of 160 - one Russian (K. Klaus). Technology: out of 239 - two are Russian (K. Tsiolkovsky, A. Popov - he is mentioned twice).

Muray has a special list of the “most outstanding” scientists who are among the top twenty. In this list, only Mendeleev is indicated in the “chemistry” section. It is also noteworthy that before Lomonosov, not a single Russian scientist came to the attention of world science.

I want to emphasize that Moray’s work is perhaps the only one of its kind, and most importantly, that it is not ideological. He had absolutely no intention of ignoring or humiliating any country. Although there are some flaws in the methodology for analyzing the degree of “significance” of a scientific event or a particular scientist, nevertheless, the method of counting Muray should be considered the most objective today. And the data in this book confirm the generally obvious fact that Russia before the revolution was inferior to everyone European countries and the USA in the field of science.

Two words about D.I. Mendeleev. His discovery periodic table, without a doubt, is one of the outstanding events in the field of chemistry. He is truly a great scientist in this field. However, his work in the field of economics, which some value very highly, is of an amateurish nature, as can be seen by reading his book “Treasured Thoughts.” To this should be added Mendeleev’s political myopia, which becomes especially obvious in connection with his assessments of the progressiveness of capitalism in general, and Russian capitalism in particular, just before the revolution of 1905. Only his assessments of the prospects for the Russo-Japanese War make him smile. This is the same as with L. Tolstoy, who in the epilogue of War and Peace philosophized about world history. In this regard, I. Turgenev wrote to P. Annenkov: “It’s a disaster if a self-taught person begins to philosophize, as Tolstoy does.” Mendeleev was also self-taught in economics. Although the material he collected, in particular on foreign trade, is of a very useful applied nature, and some of his judgments regarding Chinese-Russian relations are pleasantly surprising.

Usually in the context of science and education they talk about art and literature. In these areas, Russia was definitely ahead of everyone! I have read similar judgments many times.

In this regard, the following must be kept in mind. Without denying the great achievements of Russian writers and artists (“golden age”, “ silver Age"), you can nevertheless start a debate about who is higher and who is lower: Shakespeare, Goethe or Pushkin, Mozart, Beethoven or Tchaikovsky, etc. The problem is that not only nationally significant writers, artists or composers, but even world-famous ones hardly played any role in terms of the progress of mankind in general or of a particular country in particular. At one time this thought seemed wild to me. Until I took up the theory of progress. After studying this topic, it now seems natural to me. Well, let's say, what influence did Mozart or Shakespeare have on the development of Japan or China? Or the great works of the Japanese poet Basho, or the Chinese poet Su Dongpo on the state of the brains of Europeans? I don't think so. While inventions and discoveries in the field of science and technology, if not immediately, over time, certainly have an impact on the development of specific states and all of humanity.

The general crisis of the autocratic system, which was clearly felt already at the end of the 19th century, and the turbulent events of the beginning of the 20th century - all this left an indelible mark on Russian culture. Its most diverse spheres reflected both the cataclysms that shook Russia at that time and the languid premonition inherent in many representatives of the creative intelligentsia of an even more terrible tragedy that was promised in the near future.

Education. Seal. The science

In the 20th century Russia entered with a fairly extensive and ramified education system. It included three levels: primary (parochial schools, public schools), secondary (classical gymnasiums, real and commercial schools) and higher (universities, institutes). However, all these educational institutions existed and developed in different conditions.

The most difficult situation was primary school. This was evidenced by the very low percentage of literate people in the country: 21% in 1897, 30% in 1917. At the beginning of the 20th century. Russia spent only 43 kopecks on public education. per capita, while England and Germany - 3.8 rubles. True, after the first Russian revolution, a sharp increase in allocations for primary education began. In 1905, the Second Duma even considered a project to introduce universal primary education in Russia, but it never received the force of law.

The situation was somewhat better with secondary educational institutions. In Russia, back in the first half of the 19th century. a whole network of gymnasiums with well-developed training programs and a fairly strong staff of teachers. However, in the 1860s. in order to combat the “dangerous” passion of nihilistic youth for the natural sciences, this integral system was artificially deformed. On the one hand, classical gymnasiums were established, where the main emphasis was on teaching ancient languages, on the other, real schools with a narrow professional technical orientation.

At the beginning of the 20th century. Under the influence of public demands, the ugly aspects of secondary education are gradually being straightened out. In gymnasiums the classical direction was weakened, more time was allocated to teaching natural sciences and mathematics. The excessively narrow specialization in real schools was also eliminated, the graduates of which now had wider opportunities for obtaining higher education than before. Increasingly popular at the beginning of the 20th century. used commercial schools, a network of which was created on the initiative and at the expense of the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie. These schools had the best material base than other secondary educational institutions, they gave a good education, they practiced joint education of boys and girls, unprecedented in Russia.

As for the higher educational institutions- institutes and especially universities, then in terms of the level of organization of teaching they were not inferior to the best European models. However, it was precisely this area of ​​Russian education that the tragic events of the early 20th century influenced. had the most fatal impact. Student riots have become a common feature of Russian life since the 1860s. But it was at this time that they took on a completely unprecedented scale. In 1899, the authorities increased strict administrative supervision with the so-called “Temporary Rules”, according to which participants in student riots were subject to conscription as soldiers. This measure produced consequences diametrically opposed to those that the government had hoped for: from 1899 until the first revolution, student unrest continued almost continuously, from time to time developing into strikes that led to the closure of universities and other higher educational institutions. During the revolution, students became one of its most active participants. True, Stolypin, who acted with the most brutal methods, managed to restore relative order in higher educational institutions. However, in 1911 a general student strike broke out, resulting in the expulsion of several thousand students from universities. Following this, the “exodus” from Moscow University of professors, who constituted its flower, began: N. D. Zelinsky, P. N. Lebedev, K. A. Timiryazev and many others resigned in protest against repression. Thus, from the end of the 19th century. normal life in higher educational institutions was disrupted, studies were conducted in fits and starts, and politics pushed science into the background.

Beginning of the 20th century was marked by the intensive growth of periodicals and book publishing in Russia. The Manifesto of October 17, 1905 introduced, albeit incomplete, freedom of the press. She was exempt from preliminary censorship and was retroactively subject to judicial and administrative prosecution for anti-government publications. Although the concept of “anti-government” was interpreted extremely broadly by the authorities, the prospects for publishing activity have now become much more attractive than before.

If at the beginning of the 20th century. There were 125 legal newspapers published in the country, then in 1913 - more than 1000. The number of magazines by this time had reached an even larger figure - 1263. At the same time, along with the traditional "thick" magazines designed for the educated strata of society, everything in “subtle” ones are starting to come out in greater numbers—purely entertaining, “for family reading”, women's, for children and youth, etc. Some of them were very popular and were published in large quantities.

The production of books expanded significantly: in terms of the total amount of published literature, Russia at that time took third place in the world (after Germany and Japan). The activities of many book publishers are becoming a noticeable phenomenon of Russian culture, among whom I. D. Sytin and A. S. Suvorin especially stood out for their scope. Sytin became famous for publications accessible to the mass reader: popular print books, various brochures, school textbooks. Suvorin acted in the same vein, publishing the “Cheap Library” in mass editions - works by Russian and foreign authors, books on art, and popular science works. At the same time, publishing houses appeared, for example, the Sabashnikov brothers, specializing in the publication of serious scientific literature.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. Russian science reaches the forefront. At this time, scientists appeared in various areas of the world, whose discoveries changed traditional ideas about the world around us. In the field of natural sciences, such a revolutionary role was played by the works of physiologist I. P. Pavlov, who developed a fundamentally new method for studying living organisms. For his discoveries in the field of digestive physiology, Pavlov, the first among Russian scientists, was awarded the Nobel Prize (1904). Another Russian naturalist I. I. Mechnikov became a Nobel laureate for research in the field of comparative pathology, microbiology and immunology. The foundations of new sciences (biochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiogeology) were laid at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. V. I. Vernadsky.

Ahead of their time, scientists worked who devoted themselves to the development of fundamentally new areas of science. N. E. Zhukovsky, who played a huge role in the development of aeronautics, laid the foundations of modern hydro- and aerodynamics.

In 1902, under his leadership, a wind tunnel was built - one of the first in Europe; in 1904 - the first aerodynamic institute in Europe was created. The brightest phenomenon not only of Russian, but also of world science were the works of K. E. Tsiolkovsky, who laid the foundations of the theory of rocket propulsion and theoretical cosmonautics.

Revolutionary situation in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. was accompanied by a rise in general interest in politics and the humanities: history, philosophy, economics, law. These sciences were transformed from “armchair” sciences into journalistic ones, and a number of scientists began to engage in political activities. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. special meaning acquires religious philosophy, the foundations of which were laid by V. S. Solovyov. With extreme force and persuasiveness, he spoke out against the materialism and positivism that dominated Russian science, trying to enrich philosophy with ideas drawn from Christianity. Following Solovyov, such remarkable philosophers as N. A. Berdyaev, S. N. Bulgakov, P. A. Florensky, S. N. and E. devoted themselves to the search for ways on which humanity could draw closer to the Lord and create a truly Christian society. N. Trubetskoy, S. L. Frank, etc.

At this time, a number of very striking works related to various areas historical research: “Essays on the history of Russian culture” by P. N. Milyukov, “ Peasant reform"A. A. Kornilova, "The History of Young Russia" by M. O. Gershenzon. Problems of an economic nature are attracting increasing attention from historians: serious studies on the history of the Russian economy were created by the “legal Marxists” M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky and P. B. Struve. A kind of indicator high level domestic historical science became a brilliant lecture course on Russian history by V. O. Klyuchevsky, published at the beginning of the 20th century.

The names of Russian linguists F. F. Fortunatov, A. A. Shakhmatov, N. V. Krushevsky are associated with the development of a number of fundamental issues general linguistics and the emergence of linguistics as a science. In literary criticism of the early 20th century. the most prominent figure was A. N. Veselovsky - one of the founders of the comparative historical school, who worked a lot on comparing literary monuments of different eras and different peoples.

Questions and tasks

1. Tell us about Russian system education. 2. What impact did the events of the early 20th century have? on Russian students? 3. What explains the increase in the number of periodicals after the first Russian revolution? What features distinguished the activities of Russia's leading book publishers? 4. Tell us about the most important scientific discoveries Russian scientists at the beginning of the 20th century.

The reform in the field of education was one of the most important among the complex of changes that followed the manifesto of 1861. In 1864, the “regulations on primary public schools” were published, according to which the network of primary educational institutions in Russia was expanding, which were divided into 3 types: 1. Zemstvo schools, created by local zemstvo institutions. 2.Church schools. 3.Public schools of the Ministry public education. At the same time, a new charter of secondary educational institutions was introduced, which were henceforth divided into 2 types: Classical gymnasiums - in them the main emphasis was on the study of humanities subjects and, above all, “classical” languages ​​(ancient Greek and Latin). The gymnasiums were mainly attended by the children of nobles and officials. The program of the Real Schools differed from the gymnasium in its greater attention to natural science subjects: mathematics, physics, chemistry. Representatives of the bourgeoisie preferred to send their children to real schools. Gymnasium graduates could enter universities without exams. Real schools prepared students for entry into technical higher education institutions. At the end of the century (1896), commercial schools were added to the named types of educational institutions, opened on the initiative of representatives of the big bourgeoisie. Great strides have been made in the field of women's education. In the second half of the 19th century, women's pro-gymnasiums and gymnasiums appeared in many county towns.

By the beginning of the 60s, there were already 7 universities in the country: in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Dorpat (Tartu), Vilna (Vilnius), Kharkov, Kyiv, Kazan. Later, universities were opened in Odessa, Warsaw, and Tomsk. Just before the revolution, the university was opened in Perm. In 1863, a new university charter came into force, expanding the rights of universities to govern themselves. In addition to classical universities, the number of higher technical educational institutions has increased. Were founded polytechnic institutes in Kyiv, St. Petersburg, Novocherkassk; Institute of Technology In Tomsk. An important innovation was the emergence of higher education for women (before this, only men were admitted to higher education institutions). Higher courses for women are opening. The most famous were the courses of Professor V.I. Guerrier, founded in 1872 in Moscow and the famous “Bestuzhev Courses” (named after their official leader, historian Professor K.N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin) in St. Petersburg (1878).

The founder of scientific pedagogy in Russia was Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky (1824-1871). Supporters of the democratization of public education, he established as the basis of his pedagogical system the idea of ​​educational teaching. Ushinsky is the author of works on pedagogy and textbooks for schools, which have gone through dozens of editions. L.N. Tolstoy devoted a lot of effort to pedagogy.

Education reform has brought certain results. If at the beginning of the 60s the literacy rate was only 5%, then by the end of the century (1897), thanks to the efforts of zemstvo teachers and educators from the clergy, literate people accounted for 21% of the total population of Russia. The government did not show proper attention to the education sector. Teachers' salaries continued to be very small. Appropriations for public education were extremely meager. Compared to Western countries, Russia continued to remain a country with a very low literacy rate.

A feature of the originality of Russian culture II half of the 19th century century was what is relative low level elementary literacy of the overwhelming majority of the population was combined in Russia with unusually high rates of development national science, which achieved great success at this time. Research in the field of natural science is especially widely known throughout the world. Founder national school physiology became I.N. Sechenov. His works devoted to the study of the brain and nervous system, were a major contribution to biology. Works on the theoretical and experimental study of nervous physiology higher activity were continued by a major domestic scientist, laureate Nobel Prize, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936), who established, using the method of conditioned reflexes he developed, that mental activity is based on material physiological processes, occurring in the cerebral cortex.

Science, enlightenment and the seal of the end XIX- startedXXcenturies.

Abolition of serfdom, bourgeois reforms carried out during the 60s and 70s. XIX century significantly accelerated the formation of capitalist relations in Russia and intensified the processes of social development as a whole. Technical progress, transformation social structure, changes in the management system predetermined the need to improve the education system.

The reform in the field of education was one of the most important among the complex of transformations that followed the manifesto of 1861. In 1864, the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” was published, according to which the network of primary educational institutions was expanded in Russia, which were divided into three types: 1 Zemstvo schools, created by local zemstvo institutions. 2. Church schools. 3. Public schools of the Ministry of Public Education. At the same time, a new charter of secondary educational institutions was introduced, which were henceforth divided into two types: Classical gymnasiums - in them the main emphasis was placed on the study of subjects of the humanities cycle and, above all, “classical” languages ​​(ancient Greek and Latin) and Real schools, where more attention was paid to natural science subjects: mathematics, physics, chemistry. Great strides have been made in the field of women's education. In the 2nd half of the 19th century, women's pro-gymnasiums and gymnasiums appeared in many county towns. By the beginning of the 80s, there were already seven universities in the country. In addition to classical universities, the number of higher technical educational institutions has increased.

A feature of the uniqueness of Russian culture in the 2nd half of the 19th century. was that the relatively low level of elementary literacy of the overwhelming majority of the population was combined in Russia with an unusually high rate of development of domestic science, which at that time achieved great success.

Research in the field of natural sciences is especially widely known in the world: I.M. Sechenov (study of the brain and nervous system), I.P. Pavlov (reflex theory), I.I. Mechnikov (immunology, embryology, problems of aging, pathology and etc.)

Remarkable discoveries marked the development of chemistry: A.M. Butlerov (theory chemical structure substances), D.I. Mendeleev ( periodic law chemical elements).

In physics, the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. was noted for a number of brilliant discoveries: A.G. Stoletov (issues of electricity, magnetism, physical nature light, the first law of the photoelectric effect), P.N. Yablochkov (arc lamp, “Yablochkov candle”), A.N. Lodygin (incandescent lamp), A.S. Popov (radio), A.F. Mozhaisky (airplane), K.E. Tsiolkovsky (project for the development of near-Earth space using devices driven by jet engines).

A special place in Russian science at the turn of the century belongs to V.I. Vernadsky, who was the founder of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and radiogeology. He developed the doctrine of the noosphere, a new evolutionary state biosphere (the surface of the Earth covered with life), in which intelligent human activity becomes one of the decisive factors in its development.

End of the 19th century was the era of the last great travelers. There are almost no “white spots” left on the map. However, not all earth's surface has been studied evenly. A significant contribution to the development of geography and ethnography was made by academician P.P. Semenov-Tien-Shansky (explored the Tien Shan, was the initiator of several expeditions to Central Asia), N.M. Przhevalsky (study Central Asia), N.N. Miklouho-Maclay (research of New Guinea and Oceania).

The development of historical science during this period was also significant: In the 2nd half of the 19th century, S.M. Solovyov wrote what remains to this day the most complete and detailed “History of Russia since ancient times” in 29 volumes; V.O. Klyuchevsky writes works on hagiography and history of medieval Rus'.

An event in the cultural life of Russia was the release of “ Explanatory dictionary alive Great Russian language" IN AND. Dalia. The collector of Russians studied Russian literature folk tales A. N. Afanasyev. The works of the Russian philologist and art critic F. I. Buslaev received great fame.

The social upsurge of the 60s affected both the general growth of printed products (in terms of circulation and titles) and changes in the subject matter of literature. Many textbooks, religious books, and fiction are published in the capital; there is an increase in the production of serious socio-economic and natural science literature.

In connection with the cultural activities of the intelligentsia, the number of publicly accessible publications for the people, for people engaged in self-education, has increased.

But at the same time, the production of popular print books is also growing. By the end of the century, the share of translated literature had decreased significantly. This was caused by the successes of Russian literature, the development of domestic science, and social thought. The new industrial boom of the late 80s - early 90s, revolutionary movement working class, the activities of the first Marxist organizations contributed to the growth in the production of books and other printed works, and noticeably changed the book assortment.

The number of publications by 1901 reached 10,318, the total circulation was 56,331 thousand copies. The main centers of book publishing in the second half of the 19th century remained St. Petersburg and Moscow, followed by Kyiv, Odessa, and Kharkov.

1. Culture of Russia. / Sat. Art. edited by Frolova A.K. – M.: Rech, 2005.

2. Milyukov P.N. Essays on the history of Russian culture. – M.: Mysl, 1993.