The Huns are a people who suddenly appeared from the depths of Asia, swept across Europe like a wave and left many legends about themselves. The most famous Hun leader was Attila, the great king of Atli Scandinavian sagas.
Many different peoples migrated from Asia at different times, but it was the Huns who left such a bright mark on history, as if they had dissolved after the mysterious death of their greatest leader.

The issue of the culture and origin of the Huns was studied by such prominent scientists as I.P. Zasetskaya, B.V. Lunin, V.A. Korenyako, S.S. Minyaev, P.N. Savitsky, O. Menchen-Helfen, T. Hayashi , T.Barfield, N.N. Kradin, P.B. Konovalov, L.N. Gumilyov.
What do their studies say?

Origin from the depths of Siberia

The proto-Turkic people of the Huns lived in the Mongolian steppes, pressed on all sides by enemies. Power among the Huns was inherited according to the same principle as later among the Russian princes: from brother to brother, and only then to their sons. In the third century BC, Tuman became the chanyu (ruler). He dreamed of getting rid of his eldest son Mode in order to transfer the throne to the youngest son from his beloved concubine. To implement this plan, Tuman sent Mode as a hostage to the Sogdians and attacked them in the hope that they would kill his son and save him from further trouble. But Mode quickly assessed the situation, killed his guards, stole a horse and fled to his own. Under pressure from public opinion, Tuman allocated 10,000 warriors to his eldest son, whom Mode began to train according to a new scheme. To begin with, he introduced unusual arrows with a slot that whistled when flying. If the warriors heard the whistle of their prince's arrow, they were obliged to immediately shoot at the same target. And so Mode made a test: he shot at his magnificent argamak. He cut off the heads of those who lowered their bows. He then shot his young wife. Those who evaded were also executed. The next target was the argamak of his father Tuman, and every single one was shot. After which Mode killed Tuman himself, his concubine, half-brother, and himself became a chanyu.
Mode ruled the Huns for 40 years and elevated it above all the surrounding peoples.

Several generations later, the situation in the steppe changed. The Huns were defeated and fragmented. Some of them fled to the west and joined the Trans-Ural Ugrians. For two hundred years the two peoples lived side by side, and then a wave of their joint expansion followed. It was this mixed people that later became known as the “Huns.”

The Huns are possible relatives of the Germanic peoples

The Huns and Normans are two ethnic groups that used almost similar runic writing. We are talking about the very runes that, as the Elder Edda says, the god Odin brought from Asia. Asian runes are several centuries older: they were found on the graves of Turkic heroes, for example, Kul-Tegin. Perhaps these ancient family ties were the reason why a number of Germanic peoples became allies of the Huns in Europe. King Atli is one of the favorite romantic characters in Scandinavian sagas, for example, “The Song of Hlöd”, where the king is shown to be somewhat henpecked. Indeed, Attila was a very gentle person in his family circle, loving his children and numerous wives.

Religion from time immemorial

The religion of this nomadic people was Tengrism - worship of the Eternal Blue Sky. Mount Khan Tengri in the Tien Shan was considered the habitat of the supreme deity; there were also many temples with idols cast from silver. As a protective symbol, the Huns wore amulets made of precious metals with images of dragons. Among the ruling elite of the Huns there was a supreme shaman who asked the deity for advice on taking important decisions. The elements were considered sacred: fire, water, earth.
There was also a cult of sacred trees; horses were sacrificed to them, their skins were removed and crucified between the branches, and the blood was spilled around.
Calling on the help of the god of war, the Huns used the very ancient custom of “tuom”: shooting a noble captive with “a thousand arrows.” It is logical to assume that the Huns performed the same ritual.

An army that cannot storm a fortress

The Huns subjugated such powerful powers of that era as the Ostrogothic Empire and the Alan Khaganate. Solve the riddle of success " barbarian people“Contemporaries also tried: the Roman centurion Ammianus Marcellinus, the Byzantine philosopher Eunapius, the Gothic chroniclers Jordan and Priscus of Panius. All of them were hostile to the Huns and tried to denigrate them before their descendants, colorfully describing their ugly appearance and barbaric customs. However, how could the barbarians cope with the strongest states of that era?

The authors explained the successes of the Huns by their specific military tactics: “The Alans, although equal to them in battle... were subjugated, weakened by frequent skirmishes.” This tactic was used by the Massagetae in the war against Alexander the Great: the guerrilla war of light cavalry against heavy infantry was indeed successful. However, the main military force of the Alans was not infantry, but powerful, well-trained heavy cavalry. They used proven Sarmatian close combat tactics. The Alans had fortresses that the Huns did not know how to take, and left them undefeated in their rear, although the infrastructure of the Kaganate was destroyed by them. Many Alans fled to the west and settled on the Loire.

How the Huns defeated the Crimean Goths: fording the sea

After the subjugation of the Alan Kaganate, the Huns, led by Balamber, came into direct conflict with the Ostrogoths of King Germanarich. The Goths occupied Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region. The Huns could not take the peninsula from the Don floodplain: they were not able to fight in the swampy area, which was also defended by the warlike people of the Heruls. The Huns did not have any means to transport the army by sea. Thus, the Goths felt safe on the territory of the Crimean Peninsula. This is what destroyed them.

The ancient Slavs, the Antes, were forcibly subjugated to the Goths and treated this situation without any enthusiasm. As soon as the Huns appeared on the political horizon, the Antes joined them. The Gothic chronicler Jordan calls the Antes “treacherous” and considers them the main reason for the fall of the Gothic state. Perhaps it was the Antes who provided the Huns with information that allowed the latter to capture the Crimean Peninsula by fording from the Kerch Strait.

According to Jordan, in 371, Hun horsemen, while hunting on the Taman Peninsula, chased a deer and drove her to the very cape. The deer entered the sea and, carefully stepping and feeling the bottom, crossed to the land of the Crimea, thereby indicating a ford: along this path the Hunnic army passed to the rear of its opponents and captured the Crimean peninsula. King Germanarich, who was over 110 years old at the time, pierced himself with a sword in despair.

The Huns did not destroy or expel the Goths, but only subjugated them to their power. Vinitarius became Germanarich's successor. He still had a fairly powerful army and power structure. He tried to deprive the Huns of their most important ally and attacked the Antes, captured and crucified King Bozh with his sons and 70 elders. The Huns, in turn, attacked Vinitarius and killed him in a battle on the Erak (Dnieper) River. Some of the surviving Ostrogoths moved to the possessions of the Romans, the rest submitted to the Hun leader.

The Huns are a people with a high level of diplomatic culture

If we consider the Huns as semi-savage barbarians, as Jordanes and Ammianus Marcellinus did, it is impossible to understand the secret of their success. main reason- the talent of their leaders, as well as a level of diplomacy that was not inferior to leading European states.

The Huns knew very well the entire “kitchen” of relations between the surrounding peoples, they knew how to receive necessary information and acted masterfully not only in battle, but also through negotiations. The empire of King Germanarich rested solely on submission to brute force. The leader of the Huns, Balamber, attracted to his side all the peoples offended and oppressed by the Goths, and there were many of them.
Other Hun leaders adhered to a similar scheme and did not seek to fight where there was a chance to reach an amicable agreement. Rugila in 430 established diplomatic contacts with the Roman Empire and even helped with troops to suppress the Bagaudian uprising in Gaul. Rome by this time was already in a state of collapse, but many of its citizens sided with the Huns, preferring their orderly power to the arbitrariness of their own officials.
In 447, Attila and his army reached the walls of Constantinople. He had no chance to take powerful fortifications, but he managed to conclude a humiliating peace with Emperor Theodosius with the payment of tribute and the transfer of part of the territory to the Huns.

The reason for the new trip to the west: look for a woman!

After 3 years, the Byzantine Emperor Marcian terminated the peace treaty with the Huns, but Attila found it more tempting to go to Gaul: part of the Alans, whom Attila wanted to defeat, went there, in addition, there was another reason.

Princess Justa Grata Honoria was the sister of the Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III, her husband could lay claim to imperial power. To avoid possible competition, Valentinian was going to marry his sister to the elderly and trustworthy senator Herculan, which she did not want at all. Honoria sent Attila her ring and an invitation to marry. And as a result, the Hunnic horde passed through the entire north of Italy, plundered the Po River valley, along the way defeated the kingdom of the Burgundians, and reached Orleans, but the Huns could not take it. Valentinian did not allow Attila's marriage to Honoria; the princess herself escaped torture, and perhaps execution, only thanks to her mother's intercession.
Orientalist Otto Menchen-Helfen believes that the reason for the departure of the Huns from Italy was the outbreak of a plague epidemic.

Death of the leader and collapse of the state

After leaving Italy, Attila decided to marry the beautiful Ildiko (Hilda), daughter of the King of Burgundy, but died on his wedding night from a nosebleed. Jordan says that the leader of the Huns died from intemperance and drunkenness. But in the works of German mythology “Elder Edda” and others, King Attila was killed by his wife Gudrun, who avenged the death of her brothers.

The next year, 454, the Hunnic power ceased to exist. Attila's most prominent sons, Ellak and Dengizich, soon died in battle. But the Huns and their famous leader became part of the history and mythology of many peoples.

What European peoples borrowed from the Huns

In the Roman army, the military leader Fabius Aetius introduced Hunnic compound short bows with a reverse bend, well suited for shooting from horseback.
The ancestors of the Huns, the Huns, were the inventors of stirrups: it was from them that this part of the harness spread to other peoples.
The names of the Hun leaders came into fashion in Europe and became familiar: Balthazar, Donat, and of course Attila: this name is especially popular in Hungary.

Question to point 1. When was the Golden Horde formed? When did it become an independent state?

What peoples were part of the Golden Horde? What was the name of the main part of the inhabitants of this state?

Golden Horde – Russian name, the residents themselves called it Ulus Jochi. Ulus (or great states) were originally components of Genghis Khan's empire. The future Golden Horde was formed even before the conquest of the Old Russian state for the eldest son of Genghis Khan named Jochi and also his descendants. The state actually became independent under Batu Khan (Batu), and his younger brother Mengu-Timur received formal independence when he ascended the throne in 1266.

The population of the Golden Horde was called Tatars, but in fact included Turkic (Kipchaks, Volga Bulgars, Khorezmians, Bashkirs, etc.), Slavic, Finno-Ugric (Mordovians, Cheremis, Votyaks, etc.) and North Caucasian (Yasy, Alans, Cherkassy and others) etc.) peoples.

Question to paragraph 1. 2. Who was the Grand Duke of Moscow at that time?

Vasily I Dmitrievich was on the Moscow throne at that time.

Question to paragraph No. 1. Why do you think Tamerlane's power collapsed?

Timur's power collapsed for the same reasons as Old Russian state and many other medieval powers. The great conqueror distributed the lands to his sons and grandsons. Moreover, many of these lands were independent before the conquest, therefore they were not economically dependent on the center and could separate again. Despite the fact that Timur left the throne to only one of his descendants, the rest had the resources to fight for the inheritance or part of it.

Question for paragraph No. 2. What peoples were part of the Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian Khanates?

The inhabitants of all these khanates were called Tatars. But in Kazan lived the Volga Bulgars (it was actually formed on the territory of their ancient Khaganate), Cheremis (Udmurts) and Morians, in Siberian - the Bashkirs and other peoples, in Astrakhan - the Kipchaks (Polovtsians).

Question to paragraph No. 3. Describe the occupations of the population of the states that were the heirs of the Golden Horde. What religions did the inhabitants of these states profess?

There were many nomadic cattle breeders in the Astrakhan and Kazan khanates. But due to the trade route along the Volga, traders and artisans also flourished. In the Siberian Khanate, the ruling Tatars continued to engage in nomadic cattle breeding, and the subordinates (who paid them tribute), mainly Finno-Ugric peoples, continued to engage in hunting and gathering - they were largely at the primitive stage of development.

The Tatars professed Islam, but the primitive peoples subject to the Siberian Khanate retained their pagan beliefs and shamanism.

Question for paragraph No. 4. How did the relationship between the new states and Russia develop?

Relations developed in different ways; they varied both with different states and with one state in different periods. So the Kazan Khanate tried to subjugate Moscow, but having achieved the last tribute, it did not demand more and moved on to peaceful trade. The Crimean Khanate was initially an ally of Moscow against the Great Horde, but after the destruction of the latter it also began raiding Russian lands.

We think, compare, reflect: question No. 1. Using the Internet and additional literature, compile in your notebook chronological table, showing the main stages in the development of relations between the Moscow principality and the Kazan and Crimean khanates until the middle of the 16th century.

Relations with the Kazan Khanate:

1439 - the first campaign of the Kazan Tatars against Moscow, the beginning of attempts to subjugate it;

1445 - in order to redeem himself from captivity, Vasily II, in addition to the ransom itself, gave the Kazan people a tribute, their officials arrived in Russian cities - trade between the states began, but Kazan became richer from it, and Moscow remained in a subordinate position;

1467 - the campaign of Moscow troops against Kazan (an unsuccessful attempt to place Tsarevich Kasim, who had previously fled from Kazan, on the throne): the beginning of Moscow's offensive campaigns;

1487 - Moscow troops took Kazan and placed Muhammad-Amin, who was friends with Moscow, on the throne;

1505 - apparently, not without the knowledge of Muhammad-Amin, the massacre of Russian merchants in Kazan began, the result was a series of wars against Moscow;

1552 - the capture of Kazan by Russian troops and the destruction of the Khanate.

Relations with the Crimean Khanate:

1480 - the union of Crimea and Moscow, it began with an alliance against the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Great Horde, which first prevented Lithuania from attacking Moscow at the same time as the Great Horde, and then forced Khan Akhmat to leave the Ugra River, thanks to which the stand on it ended in the victory of the Moscow troops;

The turn of the 15th-16th centuries - with the weakening of the Great Horde, the Crimean Khanate no longer needed the Moscow state as an ally and began to make frequent raids on it, which went deep into Russian lands (in 1571, Khan Devlet Gerey even burned Moscow).

We think, compare, reflect: question No. 2. Find out which descendants of the peoples who inhabited the territories of the states formed after the collapse of the Golden Horde currently live in the Russian Federation.

The Bashkirs, Mordovians, Mari (Cheremis), Votyaks (Udmurts) and some other peoples have not yet dissolved among other peoples. The Tatars are considered a separate people.

THE DISCOVERY OF THE GOLDEN HORDE AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

1. List the social groups that were interested in the unification of Rus', the creation of a single state with a center in Moscow. Indicate the reasons for this interest for each social group.

In addition to the prince, they were interested in creating a unified Russian state serving princely people, which formed the backbone of the administrative and military “machine” of the state. Since for their faithful service they were allocated estates that were not inherited, the welfare of the landowners and the size of their land holdings depended on the Grand Duke. Therefore, they were interested in strengthening his power and creating a unified state.

For the creation of a unified state there were also boyars, owners of hereditary estates. The fact is that, in accordance with the princely agreements, the boyars did not have the right to buy land on the territory of other principalities. Since the boyars also had ambitions to expand their own possessions, they were interested in annexing new lands to the Moscow Principality, and therefore were interested in the unification of Rus'.

Support in creation centralized state provided and Church. Over time, the Church became a large landowner, accumulating properties that it received as a gift or bought from patrimonial owners as payment for debts. Having turned into a large landowner, the Church actively supported the current government in an effort to unite the Russian lands.

Supported the centralization of the state and artisans, And merchants, since the expansion of handicraft production and trade in Moscow rallied North-Western Rus' around Moscow and created economic prerequisites for unification.

2. List the consequences internecine war second quarter of the 15th century

Consequences:

1. the death of many ordinary people;
2. blow to the economy - villages and towns are devastated;
3. strengthening the power of the Golden Horde;
4. The dynastic principle of transfer of power - from father to son - won.

The war between the Moscow princes slowed down the unification of Russian lands, increased dependence on the Horde, and brought suffering to the people. The strife again demonstrated the need to unite the lands and create a single state. The lesson that the Russian people should have learned from this event is as old as the world - any internal strife makes the state weak and only in the unity of the entire people lies great strength.

Test control

1. The difference between the internecine wars of the second quarter of the 15th century. from the strife of the previous period:

1) the struggle of princes for the Vladimir throne
2) the struggle of princes for the Moscow throne
3) attracting the forces of the Golden Horde
4) the use of brutal methods of struggle

2. In the strife between the Moscow princes, the Russian Orthodox Church:

1) took a wait-and-see attitude
2) sided with Vasily II
3) supported Dmitry Shemyaka
4) supported Vasily Kosoy

3. In his will, Dmitry Donskoy:

1) ordered his sons to obey Khan Tokhtamysh as their father
2) divided the Moscow principality equally between his sons
3) transferred the Principality of Moscow and the Vladimir throne to his eldest son
4) transferred the Principality of Moscow and the Vladimir throne to his youngest son

4. Edigei organized a campaign against Rus' in 1408 in order to:

1) force Vasily to pay tribute to the Horde
2) help Vasily I establish himself on the Moscow throne
3) help Timur conquer Rus'
4) support Prince Vytautas of Lithuania

5. Vasily I bequeathed the Moscow throne:

1) younger brother
2) to a young son
3) wife Sofya Vitovtovna
4) Dmitry Shemyaka

6. War between the Moscow princes:

1) accelerated the process of unification of Russian lands
2) slowed down the progress of the unification of Russian lands
3) weakened dependence on the Horde
4) did not affect the economy of the Moscow Principality

Questions in the text of the paragraph

What changes have occurred in Eastern Europe as a result of the collapse of the Golden Horde?

Since the sixties of the 14th century, since the Great Jammy, important political changes have taken place in the life of the Golden Horde. The gradual collapse of the state began. The rulers of remote parts of the ulus acquired actual independence, in particular, in 1361 the Ulus of Orda-Ejen gained independence. However, until the 1390s, the Golden Horde still remained more or less a single state, but with the defeat in the war with Tamerlane and the ruin of economic centers, a process of disintegration began, which accelerated from the 1420s.

At the beginning of the 1420s, the Siberian Khanate was formed (the capital is the city of Sibir), in 1428 - the Uzbek Khanate, then the Kazan (1438), Crimean (1441) khanates, the Nogai Horde (1440s, the capital - Saraichik) and the Kazakh Khanate ( 1465). After the death of Khan Kichi-Muhammad, the Golden Horde ceased to exist as a single state.

The Great Horde continued to be formally considered the main one among the Jochid states. In 1480, Akhmat, Khan of the Great Horde, tried to achieve obedience from Ivan III, but this attempt ended unsuccessfully, and Rus' was finally freed from Tatar-Mongol yoke. At the beginning of 1481, Akhmat was killed during an attack on his headquarters by Siberian and Nogai cavalry. Under his children, at the beginning of the 16th century, the Great Horde ceased to exist. In 1502, the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey, in alliance with Moscow troops, finally defeated the Great Horde. The Astrakhan Khanate strengthened on part of its territory. The capital of the new state was the city of Hadji-Tarkhan (Astrakhan).

When was the Golden Horde formed? When did it become an independent state?

The Golden Horde or Ulus Jochi was formed as a result of Genghis Khan's division of the empire between his sons, carried out by 1224. Until 1266, the Golden Horde was part of the Mongol Empire. In 1266, under Khan Mengu-Timur, it gained complete independence, retaining only formal dependence on the imperial center. In the early 1320s, under Khan Uzbek, Islam became the state religion.

What peoples were part of the Golden Horde? What was the name of the main part of the inhabitants of this state?

The Golden Horde was home to Turkic (Kipchaks, Volga Bulgars, Khorezmians, Bashkirs, etc.), Slavic, Finno-Ugric (Mordovians, Cheremis, Votyaks, etc.), North Caucasian (Yas, Alans, Cherkasy, etc.) peoples. The small Mongol elite very quickly assimilated among the local Turkic population. And by the beginning of the 15th century, the entire nomadic population of the Golden Horde was designated by one word “Tatars”. It was in the Golden Horde that the formation of such nationalities as the Volga, Crimean, and Siberian Tatars took place. The Turkic population of the eastern wing of the Golden Horde formed the basis of modern Kazakhs, Karakalpaks and Nogais.

Who was the Grand Duke of Moscow during the time of Timur?

Timur (Tamerlane) was born in 1336 and died in 1405. Thus, formally, during the time of Timur, the princes of Moscow were Dmitry Donskoy and his son Vasily Dmitrievich. However, Dmitry Donskoy never faced the actions of Timur, since by the beginning of Timur's campaign against the Golden Horde in 1395, Dmitry Donskoy had already died (1389). Therefore, during the active phase of the war between Timur and Tokhtamysh, Vasily I was the Moscow prince.

Questions and tasks for working with the text of a paragraph

1. Why do you think Tamerlane’s power collapsed?

Tamerlane left behind a large family clan. Literally the next day after his death, quarrels, forceful pressure and palace coups began. Strife within the Timurid family led to the collapse of the empire.

2. What peoples were part of the Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian Khanates?

The Kazan Khanate was inhabited mainly by the descendants of the ancient Bulgars. People from the Golden Horde also settled here. The subjects of the Kazan Khanate included the Mordovians, Chuvash, Mari, and Udmurts.

The Siberian Khanate was inhabited by Turkic-speaking tribes. The influence of the Siberian Khanate extended to such peoples as the Khanty, Mansi, and Trans-Ural Bashkirs.

The main population of the Astrakhan Khanate were the Astrakhan Tatars and Nogais, the ethnic basis of which was made up of such ancient peoples as the Siraks, Uysuns, Uyghurs, Kanglys, Kipchaks, Ases, Kereits, Dormens, Naimans, Mangyts, Bulgars, Bayys, Bodyraks, Keneges, Katagans, Kobans, kaidars, mazhars, argyns, etc., who lived in the Irtysh region, Northwestern Mongolia, Central Asia, Southern Urals, Lower Volga region, Northern Caucasus, Northern Black Sea region, Don region, Azov region and Lower Dnieper region.

3. Describe the occupations of the population of the states - the heirs of the Golden Horde. What religions did the inhabitants of these states profess?

The main occupation of the population of the Kazan Khanate was agriculture; semi-nomadic cattle breeding was preserved in the steppe regions. Transit trade played a major role. Leather, jewelry, blacksmithing, and pottery crafts received significant development. Slavery was also developed in the Kazan Khanate. Russian prisoners captured as a result of raids were made slaves.

In the Astrakhan Khanate, the main occupation of the population was nomadic cattle breeding. Its inhabitants were also engaged in crafts and trade.

Siberian Tatars were engaged in cattle breeding, agriculture, pottery and furrier crafts, spinning, weaving, smelting and metal processing. In the northern part of the Siberian Khanate they were engaged in hunting, fishing and reindeer herding.

All the heirs of the Golden Horde preached Islam.

4. How did the relationship between the new states and Russia develop?

The relationships between the new states and Russia developed in different ways. Periods of hostilities alternated with times of peaceful trade. Wars were fought and alliances were made. Thus, Khan Ulu-Muhammad, expelled from the Horde, who became the ruler of the Kazan Khanate, tried to restore his dominance over Russia and force the Moscow prince to pay tribute as before, only to him, and not to the khan of the Great Horde. To do this, he made several trips to Rus'. In one of the campaigns, his sons managed to capture Prince Vasily II, who was later released on the promise of a huge ransom. From 1446 to 1466 became a time of strengthening trade ties between Moscow and Kazan. And in 1452, one of the sons of Ulu-Muhammad, Kasim, generally went into the service of the Moscow prince, for which he granted him a town, which since then began to be called Kasimov. The Kasimov Khanate, dependent on Moscow, was formed here.

The Great Horde, considering itself the heir of the Golden Horde, also sought to restore the dependence of Rus'. To achieve this, the khans of the Great Horde entered into an alliance with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The confrontation with the Great Horde temporarily brought the Moscow Principality and the Crimean Khanate closer together, which at the beginning of the 16th century led to the destruction of the Great Horde.

Working with the map

1. Find on the map the states conquered by Timur.

States and territories conquered by Timur(marked on the map in burgundy letters): Armenia. Azerbaijan, Jelairid State, Serbedar State, Khorezm, Kurt State, Mozafferid State (Kerman), Mekran, Sistan, the territories of the Ottoman Turks, Maberannahr, Jab, India were also partially conquered.

2. Show on the map the states formed as a result of the collapse of the Golden Horde.

The Golden Horde split into states:

• Nogai Horde - capital Saraichik
• Kazan Khanate - capital Kazan
• Great Horde - capital New Saray
• Kingdom of Astrakhan - capital of Khadzhi-Tarkhan (Astrakhan)
• Crimean Khanate - capital Bakhchisarai
• Siberian Khanate - capital of Siberia
• Kazakh kingdom - capital Sygnak

Kabarda, Tarkov Shamkhalate, Avar Khanate, Uzbek Khanate and others were also formed

3. Using a map, explain why, of all the fragments of the Golden Horde, the Kazan Khanate was the most dangerous enemy for the Russian lands.

The Kazan Khanate was geographically located closest to the Russian principalities and was a fairly strong state from a military and economic point of view.

Studying the document

What conclusions about the features of political and economic ties between Moscow and Astrakhan can be drawn based on this text?

The Astrakhan Khanate was the smallest and weakest fragment of the Golden Horde. Its armed forces consisted of only 3 thousand soldiers. The Khanate was always in a state of dependence, first on the Great Horde, then on the Nogai Horde and on Crimean Khanate. In this situation, naturally, the Khanate sought to enlist the support of the strong Moscow principality. Moreover, the Astrakhan Khanate had something to offer in exchange for friendship with Moscow - access to the Caspian Sea. Therefore, most likely, the annual trips of the Khan’s envoys to Moscow indicate the desire of the Astrakhan Khanate to understand whether everything remains the same, whether Moscow is faithful to its friendship with the Khanate.

We think, compare, reflect

1. Using the Internet and additional literature, make a chronological table in your notebook showing the main stages in the development of relations between the Moscow principality and the Kazan and Crimean khanates until the middle of the 16th century.

Khanate of Kazan

• 1439 - Khan Ulug-Muhammad approached Moscow and besieged it, but retreated eleven days later, plundering Kolomna and several other Russian cities along the way.
• 1444 – Kazan Khan attacked the Nizhny Novgorod and Ryazan principalities.
• 1445 - the Khan's army defeated Russian troops near Suzdal, he was captured Grand Duke Vasily II, tribute was imposed on the Principality of Moscow.
• 1467 - Russian troops marched on Kazan to place the friendly Tsarevich Kasim on the Kazan throne. The trip was unsuccessful. Ibrahim Khan prepared in advance for the “meeting”.
• In the third quarter of the 15th century, there were pronounced contradictions between states, expressed in the clash of interests of Moscow and Kazan in the lands of the Upper Volga region.
• In the 80s In the 15th century, the Moscow government actively intervened in the struggle for the Kazan throne and often sent troops to Kazan in order to place its protege on the Kazan throne.
• 1487 - capture of Kazan by Moscow troops and establishment of Khan Muhammad-Emin, loyal to Moscow, on the Kazan throne. The khan, disliked by the Moscow government, was overthrown.
• 1506 - Moscow’s major campaign against Kazan, the defeat of the Russians near Kazan, Khan Muhammad-Emin, who was placed on the throne with the military and political support of Moscow, was freed from Moscow dependence.
• 1545-1552 – a series of military campaigns of Ivan the Terrible to Kazan. The first two were unsuccessful, and in 1552 the Grand Duke besieged the capital of the Khanate for the third time. After the explosion of the city walls with gunpowder planted in secretly made tunnels, Kazan was taken by storm, a significant part of the population was killed, and the city itself burned down. The Kazan Khanate ceased to exist, and a significant part of the Middle Volga region was annexed to Russia. In memory of the capture of Kazan and the victory over the Kazan Khanate, by order of Ivan the Terrible, St. Basil's Cathedral was built on Red Square in Moscow.

In total, the Kazan khans made about forty campaigns against Russian lands, mainly in areas near Nizhny Novgorod, Vyatka, Vladimir, Kostroma, Galich and Murom.

Crimean Khanate

• 1480 - Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III turned to the Crimean Khan Mengli I Giray with a request to organize a campaign in the Polish lands “to the Kyiv places.” Mengli Giray took Kyiv by storm, plundered and greatly destroyed the city. From the rich booty the khan sent Ivan III in gratitude, a golden chalice and paten from the Kyiv St. Sophia Cathedral. In the same year, Ivan III entered into an alliance with Mengli Giray.
• The end of the 15th century - constant raids on Rus' for the purpose of robbery.
• 1521 - the forces of the Kazan Khan Sahib Giray made a military campaign against the Nizhny Novgorod, Murom, Klin, Meshchera and Vladimir lands and united with the army of the Crimean Khan Mehmed Giray near Kolomna. After which they besieged Moscow and forced Vasily III to signing a humiliating agreement.
• 1571 - despite the agreement with Moscow, at the head of an army of 40 thousand horsemen, the Crimean Khan Devlet Giray raided Moscow, burned the settlements, and captured 50 thousand people. Ivan the Terrible was forced to give an obligation to pay annual tribute to Crimea.
• 1572 - the Crimean army of Devlet Geray, united with Turkish and Nogai detachments, suffered a crushing defeat from Russian troops led by princes Mikhail Vorotynsky and Dmitry Khvorostinin in the Battle of Molodi (50 versts south of Moscow).

2. Find out which descendants of the peoples who inhabited the territories of the states formed after the collapse of the Golden Horde currently live in the Russian Federation.

Kazan, Astrakhan and Crimean Tatars, Mordovians, Chuvash, Mari, Udmurts, Khanty, Mansi, Bashkirs, Nogais.

Possible additional questions during the lesson

Why did the Golden Horde collapse?

Since the sixties of the 14th century, since the Great Jammy, important political changes have taken place in the life of the Golden Horde. Due to internal strife, the gradual collapse of the state began. The rulers of remote parts of the ulus acquired actual independence, and the state gradually began to lose its integrity. Until the 1390s, the Golden Horde still remained more or less a unified state, but with the defeat in the war with Tamerlane and the ruin of economic centers, the process of disintegration began.

In the early 1420s, the Siberian Khanate was formed, in 1428 - the Uzbek Khanate, then the Kazan (1438), Crimean (1441) khanates, the Nogai Horde (1440s) and the Kazakh Khanate (1465) arose. After the death of Khan Kichi-Muhammad in 1459, the Golden Horde ceased to exist as a single state.

Create psychological picture Timur (Tamerlane)

Timur was a very brave and reserved man. Possessing sobriety of judgment, he knew how to make the right decision in difficult situations. These character traits attracted people to him. A far-sighted ruler and talented organizer. Timur had phenomenal memory, spoke several languages, and was excellent at playing chess, which certainly testifies to his talent as a strategist. Timur was also a very erudite person, possessed extensive historical and philosophical knowledge, which he very often used to inspire his troops.

The city of Saraichik became the capital of which state?

Saraichik was the capital of the Nogai Khanate.

What state was formed on the territory of the former Volga Bulgaria?

The Kazan Khanate was formed on the territory of the former Volga Bulgaria.

What was the name of the capital of the Great Horde?

The capital of the Great Horde was Sarai-Berke (New Sarai).

What territories were included in the Crimean Khanate?

In addition to the steppe and foothills of Crimea, the Khanate occupied the lands between the Danube and the Dnieper, the Azov region and most of the modern Krasnodar region Russia.

Who and when finally defeated the Great Horde?

In 1502, the Crimean Khanate attacked the Great Horde and captured the Volga region. The Great Horde ceased to exist. The Trans-Volga lands became part of the Nogai Horde, and the lands between the Don and Volga formally went to the Crimea, but soon, in 1556, they were annexed to the Russian state.

The capital of which khanate was the city of Hadji-Tarkhan?

Khadzhi-Tarkhan (Astrakhan) was the capital of the Astrakhan Khanate.

Which state entities took shape in the North Caucasus?

In the North Caucasus, after the collapse of the Great Horde, new state formations also began to take shape - Kabarda, Tarkov Shamkhalate, Avar Khanate, etc.

What did the inhabitants of the Kazan Khanate call themselves?

The inhabitants of the Kazan Khanate called themselves Bulgars.

What did the Russians call them?

And the Russians called the inhabitants of the Kazan Khanate Tatars.

What is yasak?

Yasak is a tax in kind from the peoples of Siberia and the North, mainly on furs.

What cities were in the Kazan Khanate?

There were not many cities in the Kazan Khanate - only two: Kazan and Arsk, as well as several fortresses

Who were enslaved in this state?

Russian prisoners captured during raids were turned into slaves.

Which government structure was it in the Siberian Khanate?

State foundations in the Siberian Khanate were intertwined with remnants of tribal relations. The head of the state was a khan, elected by the nobility. The structure of the state was of a semi-military nature, the Khanate was divided into “hundreds” - volosts headed by the Murzas. The strongholds of the khan's power were fortified towns.

Give examples of military and peaceful relations between new states and Russia

Tamerlane's power collapsed because the state apparatus was imperfect, the functions of the responsible persons were not clearly defined. After his death, disputes began between his descendants. One of Tamerlane's sons, Shahrukh, managed to strengthen the situation a little, but when he transferred his power to his son, the state finally collapsed.

Answer left by: Guest

Humanity must Ancient India almost everything related to mathematics, the level of development of which in the time of the Guptas was much higher than that of other peoples of antiquity. The achievements of Indian mathematics are due mainly to the fact that the Indians had a clear concept of abstract number, which they distinguished from the numerical quantity or spatial extent of objects.
Indian civilization gave the world chess and the decimal number system. The achievements of ancient and medieval India in the field of science, literature and art, various religious and philosophical systems that originated in India, influenced the development of many civilizations of the East, and became an integral part of modern world culture
Medieval Indian mathematicians such as Brahmagupta (7th century), Mahavira (9th century), Bhaskara (12th century), in turn, made discoveries that became known in Europe only during the Renaissance and later. They worked with positive and negative quantities, invented elegant ways to take square and cube roots, and they knew how to solve quadratic equations and some types of indeterminate equations. Aryabhata calculated the approximate value of the number l, which is still used today and which is an expression of the fraction 62832/20000, i.e. 3.1416. This value, much more accurate than that calculated by the Greeks, was brought to the ninth decimal place by Indian mathematicians. They made a number of discoveries in trigonometry, spherical geometry and infinitesimal calculus, mostly related to astronomy. Brahmagupta went further in his study of indefinite equations than what Europe had learned by the 18th century. In medieval India, the mathematical interconnectedness of zero (shunya) and infinity was well understood. Bhaskara, refuting his predecessors who argued that x: 0 = x, proved that the result is infinity.
Clear material)
IN early Middle Ages There were no equals to Indian doctors who knew how to perform complex operations even on the skull. At the same time, an encyclopedia of medicinal herbs was compiled in India.

Answer left by: Guest

Development of industry and market relations in various areas Austria-Hungary was uneven. Greatest industrial development The Czech Republic and Austria reached, while Galicia, Bukovina, Transcarpathia, as well as Slovakia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and some other areas lagged significantly behind in their socio-economic development.Eastern Galicia, Northern Bukovina, Transcarpathia were retained< strong>The agrarian nature of the economy, the majority of the population was employed in agriculture. The development of the economy in Western Ukrainian lands was increasingly determined by the interests of the large factory industry of the western and central provinces of the empire.Industry of Western Ukrainian lands under the rule of Austria-Hungary in the last third of the 19th century. was almost entirely in the hands of foreign capitalists (German, Austrian, Canadian). Throughout the 70s - 80s. XIX century there was also an intensive process of formation of the factory industry, mainly the oil-extracting, flour-grinding, alcohol-based, and timber-processing industries. Steam engines began to be widely used at these enterprises.But in the economic structure of Austria-Hungary, Western Ukrainian lands were assigned the role of a market for finished goods and a source of raw materials and labor for the industrialized provinces. Western industry could not withstand the competition of cheap goods and decline began. The imperial government actually did not take measures to develop industry in Western Ukraine. Western Ukrainian entrepreneurs were not provided with tax benefits that were enjoyed in the western provinces. Access for Western Ukrainian goods to the markets of Austria-Hungary and neighboring countries was effectively closed. At the same time, there were benefits for the export of raw materials and semi-finished products from the region.Proclaimed in 1848 peasant reform, the main provision of which was the abolition of serfdom, was carried out in the 50s. The government did everything to ensure that the losses of the landowners were minimal and that they received everything they needed to adapt to the new economic conditions.After the reform, Western Ukraine remained the land of landowners' latifundia. Large landowners, who had 5 thousand or more hectares, owned more than 40% of all lands. Despite the large remnants of serfdom, Agriculture Western Ukraine in the second half of the 19th century. gradually developed in a market way: civilian workers worked on landowners' and rich peasant farms. TO end of the 19th century V. in Western Ukrainian lands there were over 400 thousand permanently employed and periodically hired workers. Agricultural machinery was used more and more widely, and the specialization of regions deepened.