Publishing and trading corporation "Dashkov and Co."
M. K. Guseikhanov, O. R. Radzhabov
Concepts of modern natural science
Sixth edition, revised and expanded
Ministry of Education and Science
Russian Federation as a textbook
For university students
Moscow, 2007
UDC 001 BBK 20 G96
Reviewers:
A. D. Gladun- Chairman of the Expert Council on General Natural Sciences of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Professor at MIPT;
L. V. Koroleva- Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Professor of Moscow State Pedagogical University;
O. P. Melekhova- member of the expert council of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, candidate of biological sciences, senior researcher;
G. K. Safaraliev- Deputy Chairman of the Committee on Science and Education of the State Duma of the Russian Federation, Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Professor of DSU.
Guseikhanov M.K., Radjabov O.R. Concepts of modern natural science: Textbook. - 6th ed., revised. and additional - M.: Publishing and trading corporation "Dashkov and Co", 2007. - 540 p.
ISBN 978-5-91131-306-7
The textbook examines the most important concepts of modern natural science: stages of development of the natural scientific picture of the world, modern ideas about the structure and development of the nature of micro-, macro- and mega-worlds; evolution of ideas about space, time and matter; principles of relativity and complementarity; uncertainty ratio; laws of conservation in the micro- and macrocosm; the nature of elementary particles, energy and matter; concepts of the origin of the evolution of living nature and humans; biosphere and ecology; specifics of modern natural science; synergetics; self-organization in various systems, problems of modern natural science; worldview and scientific and technological revolution.
The textbook has been prepared in accordance with the State Standard of Higher Professional Education and is intended for university students studying the concepts of modern natural science, teachers, graduate students and students interested in worldview and theoretical-cognitive problems of natural science and philosophy.
UDC 001 BBK 20
ISBN 978-5-91131-306-7
© M. K. Guseikhanov, O. R. Radzhabov, 2006
OCR: Ikhtik (Ufa)
Ihtik.Lib.Ru
Introduction 9
Chapter 1. NATURAL SCIENCE AS A UNITED SCIENCE
ABOUT NATURE 13
Natural science and humanitarian cultures. 13
The place of science in the cultural system and its structure 14
Characteristics of science 18
Natural science - fundamental science 21
Chapter 2. CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURAL SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE 26
Structure scientific knowledge 26
Basic methods scientific research 29
Dynamics of science development. Principle of correspondence 36
Chapter 3. IMPORTANT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
NATURAL SCIENCE 41
The world system of ancient philosophers 41
Geocentric and heliocentric systems of the structure of the world 49
Mechanistic and electromagnetic pictures of the world 55
Modern natural-scientific picture of the world 60
Chapter 4. THE CONCEPT OF RELATIVITY
SPACE AND TIME 69
The concept of space and time 69
Time measurement 73
Space and time in special theory relativity 76
General relativity about space
and time 86
Chapter 5. STRUCTURE OF THE MATERIAL WORLD 94
Structural structure of the material world 94
Brief description of the microworld 95
Brief description of the macrocosm 100
Brief description of megaworld 106
Chapter 6. INTERACTIONS AND MOVEMENT
STRUCTURES OF THE WORLD 113
Four types of interactions and their characteristics 113
Concepts of short-range and long-range 116
Matter, field, vacuum. Superposition principle 117
Fundamental constants of the universe 119
Anthropic cosmological principle 123
The nature of the movement of world structures 126
Chapter 7. BASIC REGULARITIES
MICROWORLD 133
Elementary particles 133
Particle-wave nature of micro-objects 142
The concept of additionality 148
Probabilistic nature of the laws of the microworld. Concepts of uncertainty and causation 150
7.5. Electron shell of atom 153
Chapter 8. CONCEPTS OF MATTER AND ENERGY .162
8.1. The variety of forms of matter 162
Substance and its states 164
Energy and its manifestations in nature 167
Laws of conservation in nature 182
Conservation laws and principles of symmetry 189
Chapter 9. COMPOSITION, STRUCTURE
AND INTERCONVERSIONS OF SUBSTANCES 197
Conceptual levels in substance cognition 197
Composition of matter and chemical systems 201
Structure of matter and its properties 209
Chemical processes 213
Evolution chemical systems and prospects of chemistry 217
Chapter 10. NATURE OF THE MEGAWORLD 222
Distances and sizes in the megaworld 222
Earth as a planet and natural body 230
Composition and structure solar system 243
Sun, stars and interstellar medium 253
Galaxies 259
Chapter 11. CHARACTER OF NATURAL SCIENCE
REGULARITIES OF NATURE 269
Determinism of natural processes 269
Thermodynamics and the concept of irreversibility 273
The problem of the “heat death of the Universe” 279
Chapter 12. ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION
UNIVERSE 286
The Big Bang and the Expanding Universe 286
The initial stage of the Universe 292
Cosmological models of the Universe 297
Chapter 13. ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION
HEAVENLY BODIES, EARTH 301
Origin and evolution of galaxies and stars 301
Origin of the planets of the solar system 307
Origin and Evolution of the Earth 317
Space and Earth 330
Chapter 14. CONCEPTS OF THE ORIGIN OF LIFE.. .343
Concepts of the origin of life on Earth 343
Classification of levels of biological structures
and organization of living systems 357
Genetic engineering and biotechnology 363
Problems of the origin of life in the Universe 367
Chapter 15. EVOLUTION OF LIVING NATURE 374
Evidence of the evolution of living things 374
Paths and reasons for the evolution of living things 378
Darwin's theory of evolution 381
Modern theory of organic evolution 384
Synthetic theory of evolution 387
Other concepts of the evolution of living things. 389
Chapter 16. CONCEPT OF ORIGIN
AND HUMAN EVOLUTION 397
Man as a subject of natural scientific knowledge... 397
Similarities and differences between humans and animals 399
Concepts of the appearance of man on Earth. Anthropology 402
The evolution of human culture. Sociobiology 410
Problems of searching for extraterrestrial civilizations 415
Communication problem with extraterrestrial civilizations 420
Chapter 17. MAN 425
Human Physiology 425
Emotions and creativity 432
Health and performance 435
Issues of biomedical ethics 440
Chapter 18. TEACHING ABOUT BIOSPHERE AND ECOLOGY 448
Biosphere 448
Ecology 453
Modern environmental problems 456
Noosphere, 460
Demographic problem 467
Chapter 19. METHODS OF MODERN
NATURAL SCIENCE 474
Systemic research method 474
Cybernetics - the science of complex systems 479
Methods of mathematical modeling 481
Mathematical modeling in ecology 484
Chapter 20. SELF-ORGANIZATION IN NATURE 491
Self-organization paradigm 491
Synergetics 493
Features of the evolution of nonequilibrium systems 495
Self-organization is the source and basis of evolution 498
Self-organization in various types evolution 503
Chapter 21. MODERN NATURAL SCIENCE
AND THE FUTURE OF SCIENCE 508
Features of the current stage of development of science 508
Natural science and worldview 511
Science and Philosophy 514
Natural science and scientific and technological revolution 516
General patterns of modern natural science 524
Modern natural-scientific picture of the world
and Man 526
21.7. Features in development modern science 529
Literature 535
We dedicate this book to the blessed memory of our parents and teachers.
Introduction
Is a mortal able to comprehend the harmony of the world, Whose coming and going is incomprehensible to him?
Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
State educational standards of higher professional education of the Russian Federation require students of humanitarian and socio-economic specialties to master a course in the discipline “Concepts of modern natural science”. The inclusion of this discipline in the program of humanities faculties of universities is due to the need to familiarize students with an integral element of a single culture - natural science - and to form a holistic view of the world around them. This course is designed to facilitate the acquisition of a broad basic higher education and contribute to the comprehensive development of the individual. Training course reflects the main complex of concepts of modern natural science, gives a panorama of the most famous methods and laws of modern science, demonstrates the specificity of the rational method of knowing the world around us. This is all the more necessary, since now the rational natural scientific method is increasingly penetrating into the humanitarian environment, forming a holistic scientific knowledge of society. Science is acquiring an increasingly universal language, adequate to philosophy, psychology, social sciences and even art. The emerging trend today towards a harmonious synthesis of two traditionally different cultures, the humanities and the natural sciences, is in tune with society’s needs for a holistic worldview and emphasizes the relevance of this discipline.
For study, we offer those directions and problems that determine the appearance of modern natural science and scientific approach to culture. One of the objectives of the course is to form ideas about the picture of the world as the basis of the integrity and diversity of nature. Therefore, the most important concepts of modern natural science are introduced into the program: ideas about space, time and matter; conservation laws in the world; concepts of the origin and evolution of the Universe, life and man; biosphere and ecology; specifics of self-organization, systemic research methods, etc.
The desire of people to find commonality in the diversity of things and natural phenomena around them is well known. This desire was embodied in the idea of the unity of the world. A holistic reflection of the unity of the world is the result of a synthesis of data from the natural sciences: physics, astronomy, chemistry, biology, etc.
Historically, the worldview developed from a complex of primitive empirical knowledge, mythological, religious ideas to a philosophical and theoretical worldview, and often religious and rational components of knowledge were intertwined in the teachings of thinkers. The introduction of rational ideas raised the worldview to a qualitatively new level, but did not in itself remove the question of a non-scientific reflection of reality, of the presence of an irrational element in this worldview.
The desire for the unity of the diverse received one of its embodiments in the scientific guesses of thinkers Ancient East, ancient Greece and Rome. It should be emphasized that these guesses, and then hypotheses, represented the unity of natural science and philosophical approaches to the analysis of reality.
The idea of the Universe as a single whole, the laws of operation of which are accessible to human knowledge and understanding, has played and continues to play a constructive role in the formation of the scientific picture of the world. Indeed, it is this idea that lies as the cornerstone in the ideological and methodological foundation of modern science. "The basis
“of all our scientific work,” “the strongest and noblest of the springs of scientific research,” Einstein called the belief in the rational (law-based) structure of the Universe. “Without faith in the internal harmony of our world,” he emphasized, “there could be no science.”
The formation of a modern natural scientific picture of the world is a historical, revolutionary or evolutionary replacement of some scientific views by others.
The history of human knowledge is the history of the emergence, development and replacement of some scientific pictures of the world by others, which arise in the depths of the previous ones and in the process of evolution come closer to the objective scientific picture of the world. The main forms of generalization of facts in the world system, which ensure its evolutionary development, are: 1) explanation of facts within the framework of the existing world system; 2) explanation of facts by introducing additional concepts, new methods of formalization, or by introducing restrictions on the principles of the theory. Thus, the scientific revolution acts as a time-extended, holistic, natural and periodically repeating stage in the development of scientific knowledge, which is characterized by the spasmodic formation of a new fundamental scientific theory or the scientific system of the world.
The modern scientific picture of the world is a picture of an evolving Universe. The evolution of the Universe includes the evolution of matter, its structure, as well as the evolution of living and social society. The evolution of matter was accompanied by a decrease in its temperature, density, and the formation chemical elements. The evolution of structure is associated with the emergence of superclusters of galaxies, the separation and formation of stars and galaxies, and the formation of planets and their satellites.
Thus, the Universe appears before us as a process of evolution of matter endlessly unfolding in time and space. In this process, a wide variety of objects and phenomena of the microworld and megaworld are interconnected. It turned out that in all eras, scientific thought is characterized by
terized with the complementarity of macroscopic and microscopic aspects.
For a humanities student, it is especially important to understand the problems of social life in their connection with the basic concepts and laws of natural science. At the same time, the key stages in the development of natural science show how the dialogue between science and society proceeded in different historical periods, demonstrating continuity and continuity in the study of nature.
This discipline is not a mechanical combination of traditional courses in physics, chemistry, biology, ecology and others, but is a product of interdisciplinary synthesis based on complex historical-philosophical, cultural and evolutionary-synergetic approaches to modern natural science, therefore its effective development is possible through the use of a new a paradigm capable of combining the natural science and humanitarian components of culture, and awareness of the universal role of a metalanguage that synthesizes the fundamental laws of natural science, philosophy and synergetics.
Anyone who has studied it must clearly imagine the true unity and integrity of nature, that single foundation on which the countless variety of objects and phenomena of the world around us is built and from which flow the basic laws connecting the micro-, macro- and megaworlds, Earth and Space, physical and chemical phenomena among themselves and with life, with the mind.
System of natural science knowledge
Natural science is one of the components of the system of modern scientific knowledge, which also includes complexes of technical and human sciences. Natural science is an evolving system of ordered information about the laws of motion of matter.
The objects of research are individual natural sciences, the totality of which at the beginning of the 20th century. was called natural history, from the time of their inception to the present day there have been and remain: matter, life, man, the Earth, the Universe. Accordingly, modern natural science groups the basic natural sciences as follows:
- physics, chemistry, physical chemistry;
- biology, botany, zoology;
- anatomy, physiology, genetics (the study of heredity);
- geology, mineralogy, paleontology, meteorology, physical geography;
- astronomy, cosmology, astrophysics, astrochemistry.
Of course, only the main natural ones are listed here, but in fact modern natural science is a complex and branched complex that includes hundreds of scientific disciplines. Physics alone unites a whole family of sciences (mechanics, thermodynamics, optics, electrodynamics, etc.). As the volume of scientific knowledge grew, certain branches of science acquired the status of scientific disciplines with their own conceptual apparatus and specific research methods, which often makes them difficult to access for specialists involved in other branches of the same, say, physics.
Such differentiation in the natural sciences (as, indeed, in science in general) is a natural and inevitable consequence of increasingly narrowing specialization.
At the same time, counter processes also naturally occur in the development of science, in particular, natural processes emerge and take shape. scientific disciplines, as is often said, “at the intersections” of sciences: chemical physics, biochemistry, biophysics, biogeochemistry and many others. As a result, the boundaries that were once defined between individual scientific disciplines and their sections become very conditional, flexible and, one might say, transparent.
These processes, leading, on the one hand, to a further increase in the number of scientific disciplines, but on the other hand, to their convergence and interpenetration, are one of the evidence of the integration of natural sciences, reflecting the general trend in modern science.
It is here, perhaps, that it is appropriate to turn to such a scientific discipline, which certainly occupies a special place, as mathematics, which is a research tool and a universal language not only of the natural sciences, but also of many others - those in which quantitative patterns can be discerned.
Depending on the methods underlying the research, we can talk about natural sciences:
- descriptive (examining evidence and connections between them);
- exact (building mathematical models to express established facts and connections, i.e. patterns);
- applied (using systematics and models of descriptive and exact natural sciences to master and transform nature).
However, a common generic feature of all sciences that study nature and technology is the conscious activity of professional scientists aimed at describing, explaining and predicting the behavior of the objects under study and the nature of the phenomena being studied. The humanities differ in that the explanation and prediction of phenomena (events) is based, as a rule, not on an explanation, but on an understanding of reality.
This is fundamental difference between sciences that have objects of research that allow systematic observation, repeated experimental testing and reproducible experiments, and sciences that study essentially unique, non-repeating situations that, as a rule, do not allow exact repetition of experience or conducting any experiment more than once.
Modern culture strives to overcome the differentiation of knowledge into many independent directions and disciplines, primarily the split between the natural and human sciences, which was clearly evident in late XIX V. After all, the world is one in all its infinite diversity, therefore relatively independent areas unified system human knowledge is organically interconnected; the difference here is transitory, the unity is absolute.
Nowadays, the integration of natural science knowledge has clearly emerged, which manifests itself in many forms and is becoming the most pronounced trend in its development. This trend is increasingly manifested in the interaction of the natural sciences with the humanities. Evidence of this is the promotion to the forefront of modern science of the principles of systematicity, self-organization and global evolutionism, which open up the possibility of combining a wide variety of scientific knowledge into a coherent and consistent system, united general patterns evolution of objects of various natures.
There is every reason to believe that we are witnessing an increasing rapprochement and mutual integration of the natural and human sciences. This is confirmed by the widespread use in humanitarian research of not only technical means and information technologies, used in the natural and technical sciences, but also general scientific research methods developed in the process of development of natural science.
The subject of this course is concepts related to the forms of existence and movement of living and inanimate matter, while the laws that determine the course of social phenomena are the subject of the humanities. It should, however, be borne in mind that, no matter how different the natural and human sciences are from each other, they have a general unity, which is the logic of science. It is submission to this logic that makes science a sphere human activity aimed at identifying and theoretically systematizing objective knowledge about reality.
The natural scientific picture of the world is created and modified by scientists of different nationalities, including convinced atheists and believers of various faiths and denominations. However, in their professional activities, they all proceed from the fact that the world is material, that is, it exists objectively, regardless of the people who study it. Let us note, however, that the process of cognition itself can influence the objects of the material world being studied and how a person imagines them, depending on the level of development of research tools. In addition, every scientist proceeds from the fact that the world is fundamentally knowable.
The process of scientific knowledge is a search for truth. However, absolute truth in science is incomprehensible, and with every step along the path of knowledge it moves further and deeper. Thus, at each stage of knowledge, scientists establish relative truth, understanding that at the next stage more accurate knowledge will be achieved, more adequate to reality. And this is another evidence that the process of cognition is objective and inexhaustible.
Introduction
Nowadays, no person can be considered educated if he does not show interest in natural sciences. The usual objection is that interest in the study of electricity or stratigraphy contributes little to the knowledge of human affairs, but only betrays a complete lack of understanding of human affairs.
The fact is that science is not only a collection of facts about electricity, etc.; it is one of the most important spiritual movements of our day. “Whoever does not try to understand this movement pushes himself out of this most significant phenomenon in the history of human activity... And there cannot be a history of ideas that excludes the history of scientific ideas.”
Natural science is the science of the phenomena and laws of nature. Modern natural science includes many natural science branches: physics, chemistry, biology, as well as numerous related branches, such as physical chemistry, biophysics, biochemistry and many others. Natural science touches on a wide range of issues about the numerous and multifaceted manifestations of the properties of natural objects, which can be considered as a single whole.
What is natural science
Natural science is a branch of science based on the reproducible empirical testing of hypotheses and the creation of theories or empirical generalizations that describe natural phenomena.
The subject of natural science is facts and phenomena that are perceived by our senses. The scientist's task is to summarize these facts and create theoretical model, including the laws governing natural phenomena. It is necessary to distinguish between facts of experience, empirical generalizations and theories that formulate the laws of science. Phenomena, such as gravity, are directly given in experience; laws of science, for example law universal gravity- options for explaining phenomena. The facts of science, once established, retain their permanent significance; laws can be changed during the development of science, just as, say, the law of universal gravitation was adjusted after the creation of the theory of relativity.
The importance of feelings and reason in the process of finding truth is a complex philosophical question. In science, a position that is confirmed by reproducible experience is recognized as truth.
Natural science as a science studies all processes and phenomena that have occurred and are occurring in the real objective world, geographical envelope, outer space. This is a branch of science based on reproducible empirical testing (testing in practice) of hypotheses and the creation of theories that describe natural phenomena and processes.
Many achievements of modern natural science, which form the basis for high-tech technologies, are associated with a comprehensive study of natural objects and phenomena. With the use of modern technical means of experiment, it was precisely this study that made it possible not only to create ultra-strong, superconducting and many other materials with unusual properties, but also to take a fresh look at biological processes, occurring inside a cell and even inside a molecule. Most branches of modern natural science are, in one way or another, connected with molecular research of certain objects, which unites many natural scientists dealing with highly specialized problems. The results of this kind of research are the development and production of new high-quality products, and above all, consumer goods. In order to know at what price such products are given - the most important component of the economy, what are the prospects for the development of modern high-tech technologies that are closely related to economic, social, political and other problems, we need fundamental natural science knowledge, including a general conceptual understanding of molecular processes, on which the most important achievements of modern natural science are based.
Modern means of natural science - sciences about fundamental laws, natural phenomena and various properties of natural objects - make it possible to study many complex processes at the level of nuclei, atoms, molecules, and cells. The fruits of comprehending true knowledge about nature at such a deep level are known to every educated person. Synthetic and composite materials, artificial enzymes, artificial crystals - all these are not only real objects of development by natural scientists, but also consumer products of various industries that produce a wide range of everyday goods. In this regard, the study of natural science problems in molecular level within the framework of fundamental ideas - concepts - without a doubt, relevant, useful and necessary for future highly qualified specialists in the natural sciences and technology, as well as for those whose professional activity has no direct relation to natural science, that is, for future economists, management specialists, commodity experts, lawyers, sociologists, psychologists, journalists, managers, etc.
Natural science studies facts and phenomena from the fields of philosophy, astrophysics, geology, psychology, genetics, evolution and is divided into a complex of sciences, each of which has its own object of study.
Natural science is divided into:
1. basic sciences;
2. applied sciences;
3. natural sciences;
4. technical sciences;
5. social sciences;
6. humanities.
1. Basic sciences
Fundamental sciences include chemistry, physics, and astronomy. These sciences study the basic structure of the world.
Physics is the science of nature. Divided into mechanical, quantum, optical physics, physics of conductors, electricity.
Chemistry studies the structure of things and their structure. It is divided into 2 large sections: organic and inorganic. Physical chemistry, physical colloid chemistry, and biochemistry are also distinguished.
Astronomy studies structure and structure outer space and is subdivided into astrophysics. Astrology, cosmology, astronautics and space exploration.
2. Applied sciences
Applied sciences study basic sciences with practical application, implementation of theoretical discoveries in life. Applied sciences include metallurgy and semiconductor physics.
3. Natural Sciences
Natural sciences study the processes and phenomena of virgin nature. They are divided into geology, geography, biology.
Geology, in turn, is divided into dynamic geology, history, and paleography.
Geography consists of 2 large sections: physical and economic geography.
Physical geography is divided into general agriculture, climatology, geomorphology, soil science, hydrology, cartography, topography, landscape science, geographical zoning, monitoring.
Economic geography includes regional studies, population geography, geography of the world economy, geography of transport, geography of the service sector, world economy, statistics, international economic relations.
Biology is the science of living organisms. Divided into botany, zoology, human and animal physiology, anatomy, histology (the science of tissues), cytology (the science of cells), ecology (the science of the relationship between man and environment) ethology (about behavior), evolutionary teaching.
4. Technical sciences
Technical sciences include sciences that study man-made devices and objects. These include computer science, cybernetics, and synergetics.
5. Social Sciences
These are sciences that study the rules and structure of society, and objects living according to its laws. These include sociology, anthropology, archeology, sociometry, and social science. Science "Man and Society".
6. Humanities
The humanities include sciences that study the essence, structure and spiritual state of man. These include philosophy, history, ethics, aesthetics, and cultural studies.
There are sciences that are at the intersection of entire blocks and sections of science. For example, economic geography is at the intersection of natural and social sciences, and bionics is at the intersection of natural and technical sciences. Interdisciplinary science, which includes social, natural and technical sciences is social ecology.
Like other areas of human activity, natural science has specific features.
Universality—communicates knowledge that is true for the entire universe under the conditions under which it was acquired by man.
Fragmentation - studies not existence as a whole, but various fragments of reality or its parameters; itself is divided into separate disciplines. In general, the concept of being as a philosophical one is not applicable to science, which is private knowledge. Each science as such is a certain projection onto the world, like a spotlight highlighting areas of interest
General validity - in the sense that the knowledge it receives is suitable for all people, and its language is unambiguous, since science strives to fix its terms as clearly as possible, which helps to unite people living in different parts of the planet.
Depersonalization - in the sense that neither individual characteristics the scientist, nor his nationality or place of residence are in any way represented in the final results of scientific knowledge.
Systematic in the sense that it has a certain structure, and is not an incoherent collection of parts.
Incompleteness - in the sense that although scientific knowledge grows limitlessly, it still cannot reach absolute truth, after which there will be nothing left to explore.
Continuity - in the sense that new knowledge in a certain way and according to certain rules correlates with old knowledge.
Criticality - in the sense that it is always ready to question and reconsider even its most fundamental results.
Reliability - in the sense that its conclusions require, allow and are tested according to certain rules formulated in it.
Immorality - in the sense that scientific truths are neutral in moral and ethical terms, and moral assessments can relate either to the activity of obtaining knowledge (the ethics of a scientist requires from him intellectual honesty and courage in the process of searching for truth), or to the activity of applying it.
Rationality - in the sense that it obtains knowledge on the basis of rational procedures and laws of logic and comes to the formulation of theories and their provisions that go beyond the empirical level.
Sensibility - in the sense that its results require empirical verification using perception, and only after that are recognized as reliable.
Research methods used in natural science
The methods of natural science are based on the unity of empirical and theoretical aspects. They are interconnected and condition each other. Their rupture, or at least the preferential development of one at the expense of the other, closes the path to correct knowledge of nature: theory becomes pointless, experience becomes blind.
Natural science methods can be divided into groups:
A) general methods concern all natural science, any subject of nature, any science. This -- various shapes dialectical method, which makes it possible to connect together all aspects of the process of cognition, all its stages. For example, the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, etc. Those systems of branches of natural science, the structure of which corresponds to the actual historical process of their development (for example, biology and chemistry), actually follow this method.
b) Special methods are also used in natural science, but do not relate to its subject as a whole, but only to one of its aspects (phenomena, essence, quantitative side, structural connections) or a certain method of research: analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction. Special methods are: observation, experiment, comparison and, as a special case, measurement. Mathematical techniques and methods are extremely important as special ways of studying and expressing quantitative and structural aspects and relationships of objects and processes of nature, as well as methods of statistics and probability theory. The role of mathematical methods in natural sciences is steadily increasing as more and more wide application calculating machines. In general, there is a rapid mathematization of modern natural science. It is associated with methods of analogy, formalization, modeling, and industrial experiment.
c) Particular methods are special methods that operate either only within a particular branch of natural science, or outside the branch of natural science where they arose. Thus, the methods of physics used in other branches of natural science led to the creation of astrophysics, crystal physics, geophysics, chemical physics and physical chemistry, biophysics. Spreading chemical methods led to the creation of crystal chemistry, geochemistry, biochemistry and biogeochemistry. Often a set of interrelated private methods is used to study one subject. For example, molecular biology simultaneously uses the methods of physics, mathematics, chemistry, cybernetics in their interrelation.
In the course of the progress of natural science, methods can move from a lower category to a higher one: specific ones can turn into special ones, and special ones into general ones.
The most important role in the development of natural science belongs to hypotheses, which are “a form of development of natural science, insofar as it thinks...”
The place of natural science in society
The place of natural science in the life and development of society follows from its connections with other social phenomena and institutions, primarily with technology, and through it with production, productive forces in general and with philosophy, and through it with the struggle of classes in the field of ideology. With all the internal integrity arising from the unity of both nature itself and the theoretical view of it, natural science is a very complex phenomenon, with various aspects and connections, often contradictory. Natural science is neither the basis nor the ideological superstructure of society, although in its most general part (where the picture of the world is formed), it is connected with this superstructure. The connection of natural science through technology with production, and through philosophy with ideology quite fully expresses the most essential social connections of natural science. The connection between natural science and technology is due to the fact that “technology... serves the purposes of man because its character (essence) consists in determining it by external conditions (laws of nature).”
IN modern era natural science is ahead of technology in its development, since its objects are increasingly becoming completely new, previously unknown substances and forces of nature (for example, atomic energy), and therefore, before the question of their technical application can arise, a “frontal” study of them is required study from the natural sciences. Nevertheless, technology with its needs remains the driving force in the development of natural science.
SUBJECT AND STRUCTURE OF NATURAL SCIENCE
The term “natural science” comes from a combination of the words of Latin origin “nature”, that is, nature, and “knowledge”. Thus, the literal interpretation of the term is knowledge about nature.
Natural science in the modern understanding - science, which is a complex of natural sciences taken in their interrelation. At the same time, nature is understood as everything that exists, the whole world in the diversity of its forms.
Natural science - a complex of sciences about nature
Natural science in the modern understanding, it is a set of natural sciences taken in their interrelation.
However this definition does not fully reflect the essence of natural science, since nature appears as a single whole. This unity is not revealed by any particular science, nor by their entire sum. Many special natural science disciplines do not exhaust in their content everything that we mean by nature: nature is deeper and richer than all existing theories.
The concept " nature"is interpreted differently.
In the very in a broad sense By nature we mean everything that exists, the whole world in the diversity of its forms. Nature in this meaning is on a par with the concepts of matter and the Universe.
The most common interpretation of the concept of “nature” is as the totality of natural conditions for the existence of human society. This interpretation characterizes the place and role of nature in the system of historically changing attitudes towards it of man and society.
In a narrower sense, nature is understood as an object of science, or more precisely, the total object of natural science.
Modern natural science is developing new approaches to understanding nature as a whole. This is expressed in ideas about the development of nature, about various forms of movement of matter and different structural levels organization of nature, in an expanding understanding of the types of causal relationships. For example, with the creation of the theory of relativity, views on the spatio-temporal organization of natural objects have significantly changed, the development of modern cosmology enriches ideas about the direction of natural processes, the progress of ecology has led to an understanding of the deep principles of the integrity of nature as a single system
Currently, natural science refers to exact natural science, that is, knowledge about nature that is based on scientific experiment and is characterized by a developed theoretical form and mathematical design.
For the development of special sciences, a general knowledge of nature and a comprehensive understanding of its objects and phenomena are necessary. To obtain such general ideas, each historical era develops an appropriate natural-scientific picture of the world.
The structure of modern natural science
Modern natural science is a branch of science based on the reproducible empirical testing of hypotheses and the creation of theories or empirical generalizations that describe natural phenomena.
Total object of natural science- nature.
Subject of natural science– facts and natural phenomena that are perceived by our senses directly or indirectly, using instruments.
The scientist's task is to identify these facts, generalize them and create a theoretical model that includes the laws governing natural phenomena. For example, the phenomenon of gravity is a concrete fact established through experience; The law of universal gravitation is a variant of explanation of this phenomenon. At the same time, empirical facts and generalizations, once established, retain their original meaning. Laws can be changed as science progresses. Thus, the law of universal gravitation was corrected after the creation of the theory of relativity.
The basic principle of natural science is: knowledge about nature should allowempirical test. This means that the truth in science is a position that is confirmed by reproducible experience. Thus, experience is the decisive argument for the acceptance of a particular theory.
Modern natural science is a complex complex of natural sciences. It includes such sciences as biology, physics, chemistry, astronomy, geography, ecology, etc.
Natural sciences differ in the subject of their study. For example, the subject of studying biology is living organisms, chemistry - substances and their transformations. Astronomy studies celestial bodies, geography studies the special (geographical) shell of the Earth, ecology studies the relationships of organisms with each other and with the environment.
Each natural science is itself a complex of sciences that arose at different stages of the development of natural science. Thus, biology includes botany, zoology, microbiology, genetics, cytology and other sciences. In this case, the subject of study of botany is plants, zoology – animals, microbiology – microorganisms. Genetics studies the patterns of heredity and variability of organisms, cytology studies the living cell.
Chemistry is also divided into a number of narrower sciences, for example: organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, analytical chemistry. Geographical sciences include geology, geoscience, geomorphology, climatology, and physical geography.
The differentiation of sciences led to the identification of even smaller areas of scientific knowledge.
For example, the biological science of zoology includes ornithology, entomology, herpetology, ethology, ichthyology, etc. Ornithology is the science that studies birds, entomology - insects, herpetology - reptiles. Ethology is the science of animal behavior; ichthyology studies fish.
The field of chemistry - organic chemistry is divided into polymer chemistry, petrochemistry and other sciences. Inorganic chemistry includes, for example, the chemistry of metals, the chemistry of halogens, and coordination chemistry.
The modern trend in the development of natural science is such that, simultaneously with the differentiation of scientific knowledge, opposite processes are taking place - the connection of individual areas of knowledge, the creation of synthetic scientific disciplines. It is important that the unification of scientific disciplines occurs both within various fields of natural science and between them. Thus, in chemical science, at the intersection of organic chemistry with inorganic and biochemistry, the chemistry of organometallic compounds and bioorganic chemistry, respectively, arose. Examples of interscientific synthetic disciplines in natural science include such disciplines as physical chemistry, chemical physics, biochemistry, biophysics, and physicochemical biology.
However modern stage development of natural science - integral natural science - is characterized not so much by the ongoing processes of synthesis of two or three related sciences, but by a large-scale unification of different disciplines and areas of scientific research, and the tendency towards large-scale integration of scientific knowledge is steadily increasing.
In natural science, a distinction is made between fundamental and applied sciences. Fundamental sciences - physics, chemistry, astronomy - study the basic structures of the world, and applied sciences are concerned with applying the results of fundamental research to solve both cognitive and socio-practical problems. For example, metal physics and semiconductor physics are theoretical applied disciplines, and metal science and semiconductor technology are practical applied sciences.
Thus, knowledge of the laws of nature and the construction of a picture of the world on this basis is the immediate, immediate goal of natural science. Promoting the practical use of these laws is the ultimate goal.
Natural science differs from the social and technical sciences in its subject, goals and research methodology.
At the same time, natural science is considered as a standard of scientific objectivity, since this area of knowledge reveals universally valid truths accepted by all people. For example, another large complex of sciences - social science - has always been associated with group values and interests that exist both among the scientist himself and in the subject of research. Therefore, in the methodology of social science, along with objective research methods, the experience of the event being studied and the subjective attitude towards it become of great importance.
Natural science also has significant methodological differences from the technical sciences, due to the fact that the goal of natural science is to understand nature, and the goal of technical science is to solve practical issues related to the transformation of the world.
However, it is impossible to draw a clear line between the natural, social and technical sciences at the current level of their development, since there are a number of disciplines that occupy an intermediate position or are complex. Thus, economic geography is located at the intersection of natural and social sciences, and bionics is at the intersection of natural and technical sciences. A complex discipline that includes natural, social, and technical sections is social ecology.
Thus, modern natural science is a vast, developing complex of natural sciences, characterized by simultaneous processes of scientific differentiation and the creation of synthetic disciplines and focused on the integration of scientific knowledge.
Natural science is the basis for the formation scientific picture of the world.
The scientific picture of the world is understood as a holistic system of ideas about the world, its general properties and patterns, arising as a result of a generalization of basic natural science theories.
The scientific picture of the world is in constant development. In the course of scientific revolutions, qualitative transformations are carried out in it, the old picture of the world is replaced by a new one. Each historical era forms its own scientific picture of the world.
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..………….3
1. Classification of sciences
Conclusion……………………………………………………..…..………………14
List of sources used……………………………….…………….15
Introduction
It is well known that natural science is a set of sciences about nature. The task of natural science is to understand the objective laws of nature and promote their practical use in the interests of man. Natural science arises as a result of the generalization of observations obtained and accumulated in the process of practical activity of people, and is itself theoretical basis this practical activity.
In the 19th century, it was customary to divide natural sciences (or experimental knowledge of nature) into 2 large groups. The first group traditionally covers the sciences of natural phenomena(physics, chemistry, physiology), and the second - about objects of nature. Although this division is rather arbitrary, it is obvious that objects of nature are not only the entire surrounding material world with celestial bodies and the earth, but also the inorganic components of the earth, and the organic beings located on it, and, finally, man.
Consideration celestial bodies is the subject of astronomical sciences, the earth is the subject of a number of sciences, of which geology, geography and physics of the earth are the most developed. The knowledge of objects that make up the earth's crust and are located on it is the subject of natural history with its three main departments: mineralogy, botany and zoology. Man serves as the subject of anthropology, the most important components of which are anatomy and physiology. In turn, medicine and experimental psychology are based on anatomy and physiology.
Nowadays, such a generally accepted classification of natural sciences no longer exists. According to the objects of research, the broadest division is the division into the sciences of living and so-called inanimate nature. The most important large areas of natural science (physics, chemistry, biology) can be distinguished by the forms of motion of matter that they study. However, this principle, on the one hand, does not allow us to cover all natural sciences (for example, mathematics and many related sciences); on the other hand, it is not applicable to the justification of further classification divisions, that complex differentiation and interrelation of sciences that are so characteristic of modern natural science.
In modern natural science, two opposing processes are organically intertwined: continuous differentiation natural sciences and increasingly narrow fields of science and integration these isolated sciences.
1. Classification of sciences
The classification procedure originates from simple observation, formed into a specific cognitive technique. However, classification makes it possible to obtain a real meaningful increase in knowledge towards identifying new groups of phenomena.
The classification procedure, directed at science itself, cannot ignore the classification proposed by F. Bacon (1561-1626) as a generalization of the range of knowledge known in his time. In his epoch-making work “On the Dignity and Augmentation of the Sciences,” he creates a wide panorama of scientific knowledge, including poetry in the friendly family of sciences. Bacon's classification of sciences is based on the basic abilities human soul: memory, imagination, mind. Therefore, the classification takes on the following form: history corresponds to memory; to the imagination - poetry; to the mind - philosophy.
In the natural sciences of Goethe's time ( late XVIII c.) it was believed that all objects of nature are connected to each other by a grandiose single chain leading from the simplest substances, from elements and minerals through plants and animals to humans. The world was depicted by Goethe as a continuous “metamorphosis” of forms. Ideas about qualitatively different “stages of organization” of nature were developed by the objective idealists Schelling and Hegel. Schelling set himself the task of consistently revealing all stages of the development of nature towards highest goal, i.e. consider nature as a purposeful whole, the purpose of which is to generate consciousness. The stages of nature identified by Hegel were associated with various stages of evolution, interpreted as development and embodiment creative activity"world spirit", which Hegel calls the absolute idea. Hegel spoke about the transition of mechanical phenomena to chemical ones (so-called chemism) and further to organic life (organism) and practice.
A serious milestone on the path to the formation of the classification of sciences was the teaching of Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825). Summing up the development of science of his time, Saint-Simon argued that the mind seeks to substantiate its judgments on observed and discussed facts. He (reason), on the positive foundation of the empirically given, has already transformed astronomy and physics. Private sciences have elements general science- philosophy. The latter became semi-positive when the particular sciences became positive, and will become completely positive when all the particular sciences became positive. This will be realized when physiology and psychology are based on observed and discussed facts, for there are no phenomena that are not either astronomical, or chemical, or physiological, or psychological. As part of his natural philosophy, Saint-Simon tried to find universal laws governing all phenomena of nature and society, and to transfer the techniques of natural science disciplines to the field of social phenomena. He equated the organic world with fluid matter and imagined man as an organized fluid body. He interpreted the development of nature and society as a constant struggle between solid and fluid matter, emphasizing the diverse connections between the common and the whole.
Saint-Simon's personal secretary, Auguste Comte, proposes to take into account the law of the three stages of intellectual evolution of mankind as a basis for developing a classification of sciences. In his opinion, classification must meet two main conditions - dogmatic and historical. The first consists in arranging the sciences according to their sequential dependence, so that each relies on the previous one and prepares the subsequent one. The second condition prescribes that sciences should be arranged in accordance with the course of their actual development, from more ancient to newer.
The various sciences are distributed according to the nature of the phenomena being studied, either according to their decreasing generality and independence, or according to increasing complexity. From such an arrangement flow more and more complex speculations, as well as more and more sublime and complete ones. In the hierarchy of sciences great importance has a degree of decreasing abstractness and increasing complexity. The ultimate goal of any theoretical system is humanity. The hierarchy of sciences is as follows: mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and sociology. The first of these forms the starting point of the latter, which, as has already been said, is the only fundamental goal of any positive philosophy.
To facilitate the usual use of a hierarchical formula, it is convenient to group terms by two, presenting them in the form of three pairs: initial - mathematical-astronomical, final - biological-sociological and intermediate - physical-chemical. In addition, each pair shows the natural similarity of the paired sciences, and their artificial separation, in turn, leads to a number of difficulties. This is especially evident when separating biology from sociology.
O. Comte's classification is based on the principles of movement from simple to complex, from abstract to concrete, from ancient to new. And although more complex sciences are based on less complex ones, this does not mean a reduction of the higher to the lower. Comte's classification does not include such sciences as logic, because, in his opinion, it is part of mathematics, and psychology, which is partly a fragment of biology, partly of sociology.
Further steps in the development of the problem of classification of sciences, taken, in particular, by Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911), led to the separation of the spiritual sciences and the natural sciences. In his work “Introduction to the Sciences of the Spirit,” the philosopher distinguishes them primarily by subject. The subject of the natural sciences consists of phenomena external to man. The mental sciences are immersed in the analysis of human relationships. In the first, scientists are interested in observing external objects as data from natural sciences; secondly, internal experiences. Here we color our ideas about the world with our emotions, but nature remains silent, as if alien. Dilthey is confident that the appeal to “experience” is the only basis of the sciences of the spirit. The autonomy of the spiritual sciences establishes the connection between the concepts of “life,” “expression,” and “understanding.” Such concepts do not exist either in nature or in the natural sciences. Life and experience are objectified in the institutions of the state, church, jurisprudence, etc. It is also important that understanding is directed to the past and serves as a source of the sciences of the spirit.
Wilhelm Windelband (1848-1915) proposes to distinguish sciences not by subject, but by method. He divides scientific disciplines into nomothetic and ideographic. The department of the former is the establishment of general laws, the regularity of objects and phenomena. The second are aimed at studying individual phenomena and events.
However, the external opposition of nature and spirit is not able to provide an exhaustive basis for the entire diversity of sciences. Heinrich Rickert (1863-1936), developing the idea put forward by Windelband about the separation of nomothetic and ideographic sciences, comes to the conclusion that the difference stems from different principles of selection and ordering of empirical data. The division of sciences into natural sciences and cultural sciences in his famous work of the same name best expresses the contrasting interests that divide scientists into two camps.
For Rickert, the central idea is that the reality given in knowledge is immanent in consciousness. Impersonal consciousness constitutes nature (natural science) and culture (cultural sciences). Natural science is aimed at identifying general laws, which Rickert interprets as a priori rules of reason. History deals with unique individual phenomena. Natural science is free from values; culture and the individualizing understanding of history are the realm of values. The indication of value is extremely important. “Those parts of reality that are indifferent to values and which we consider in the indicated sense only as nature, have for us... only natural scientific interest... their individual phenomenon has significance for us not as an individuality, but as an instance of more or less less general concept. On the contrary, in cultural phenomena and in those processes that we put in some relation to them as preliminary steps... our interest is directed to the special and individual, to their unique and non-repetitive course, i.e. study them also historically, using an individualizing method." Rickert identifies three Kingdoms: reality, value, meaning; They correspond to three methods of comprehension: explanation, understanding, interpretation.
Undoubtedly, the separation of nomothetic and ideographic methods has become important step in the classification of sciences. In a general sense, the nomothetic method (from the Greek nomothetike, which means “legislative art”) is aimed at generalizing and establishing laws and is manifested in natural science. According to the distinction between nature and culture, general laws are disproportionate and incompatible with a unique and singular existence, in which there is always something inexpressible with the help of general concepts. This leads to the conclusion that the nomothethetic method is not a universal method of cognition and that for cognition of the “individual” the ideographic method must be used.
The name of the ideographic method (from Greek, idios - “special”, grapho - “I write”) indicates that this is a method of the historical sciences of culture. Its essence is in the description of individual events with their value connotation. Among individual events, significant ones can be identified, but their unified pattern is never visible. Thus, the historical process appears as a set of unique and inimitable events, in contrast to the approach to natural science declared by the nomothetic method, where nature is covered by a pattern.
The sciences of culture, according to Rickert, are widespread in such areas as religion, church, law, state and even economics. And although the economy can be questioned, Rickert defines it this way: “Technical inventions (and therefore economic activity, which is a derivative of them) are usually accomplished with the help of natural sciences, but they themselves do not belong to the objects of natural scientific research."
Can we consider that the coexistence of both these two types of science and their corresponding methods reflects the responses of those distant disputes between nominalists and realists that excited medieval scholastic debates? Apparently yes. After all, those statements that are heard from the ideographic sciences (in particular, that the individual is the basis of the general and the latter does not exist outside it, they cannot be separated from each other and assume separate existence) are at the same time the arguments of the nominalists, for whom it is the individual, as really existing fact, can be used as the basis for true knowledge.
In relation to the modern situation, it is necessary to note that both in the exact, pomological sciences, focusing on regularity and repeatability, and in the individualizing, ideographic sciences, focusing on the singular and unique, the individual cannot and should not be ignored. Does natural science have the right to refuse to analyze individual facts, and will a chronicle be fair in which the general connection of events is not traced?
For the methodology and philosophy of science, Rickert’s reflections are of interest, in which the general and the individual are not simply opposed, which would be naive, but differentiation is presented, i.e. in distinguishing between types of general and individual. In the natural sciences, the relation of the general to the individual is the relation of the genus and the individual (instance). In public historical sciences singularity, as it were, represents, represents universality, acting as a clearly manifested pattern. Individual causal series - such is the goal and meaning of the historical sciences.
Principles of classification of sciences by F. Engels. When in 1873 Engels began to develop a classification of the forms of motion of matter, Comte's view of the classification of sciences was widespread in scientific circles. The founder of positivism, O. Comte, was confident that each science has as its subject a separate form of the movement of matter, and the objects of the various sciences themselves are sharply separated from each other: mathematics | physics | chemistry | biology | sociology. This correspondence was called the principle of coordination of sciences. Engels drew attention to how the objects being studied are interconnected and transform into one another. various sciences. The idea arose to reflect the process of progressive development of moving matter, moving along an ascending line from lower to higher, from simple to complex. The approach where mechanics was connected and passed into physics, the latter into chemistry, then into biology and social sciences (mechanics... physics... chemistry... biology... social sciences), became known as the principle of subordination. And indeed, no matter where we look, we will never find any form of movement completely separate from other forms of movement; everywhere and everywhere there are only processes of transformation of some forms of movement into others. Forms of movement of matter exist in a continuous-discontinuous process of transformation into each other. “The classification of sciences,” noted F. Engels, “each of which analyzes a separate form of motion or a series of forms of motion of matter interconnected and transforming into each other, is at the same time a classification, an arrangement, according to the inherent sequence of these forms of motion themselves, and this is precisely its meaning."
When Engels began work on Dialectics of Nature, the concept of energy had already been established in science, extended to the area of inorganics - inanimate nature. However, it became more and more clear that there could be no absolute line between living and inanimate nature. A convincing example of this was the virus - a transitional form and a living contradiction. Once in an organic environment, he behaved like a living body, but in an inorganic environment he did not behave like that. It can be said that Engels presciently foresaw the transition from one form of matter motion to another, since by the time his concept arose, science had studied only the transitions between mechanical and thermal forms. The assumption that outstanding discoveries would soon arise at the intersection of sciences, in border areas, also aroused interest. Taking up the development of one of these border areas connecting nature and society, Engels proposed a labor theory of anthroposociogenesis - the origin of man and human society. At one time, Charles Darwin (1809-1882), conducting comparative anatomical studies of humans and monkeys, came to the conclusion about the purely animal origin of humans. He identified two forms of competition: intraspecific and interspecific. Intraspecific competition led to the extinction of unadapted forms and ensured the survival of the adapted. This position formed the basis natural selection. Engels appreciated the role social factors, and in particular the special role of labor in the process of anthroposociogenesis. In the 20th century It was at the intersections of sciences that the most promising areas of new sciences emerged: biochemistry, psycholinguistics, computer science.
Thus, if in the first classifications of sciences the natural abilities of the human soul (memory, imagination, etc.) acted as the basis, then, according to our contemporary, domestic researcher B. Kedrov, the fundamental difference in Engels’ classification was precisely that “It bases the division of sciences on the principle of objectivity: the differences between sciences are determined by the differences in the objects they study.” Thus, the classification of sciences has a solid ontological basis - the qualitative diversity of nature itself, various forms of movement of matter.
In connection with new data from natural science, the five-member classification of forms of motion of matter developed by Engels was subjected to significant refinements. Received the greatest fame modern classification, proposed by B. Kedrov, in which he distinguished six main forms of movement: subatomic physical, chemical, molecular physical, geological, biological and social. Note that the classification of forms of motion of matter was thought of as the basis for the classification of sciences.
There is another approach, according to which the entire diversity of the world can be reduced to three forms of movement of matter: basic, particular and complex. The main ones include the broadest forms of movement of matter: physical, chemical, biological, social. A number of authors question the existence of a single physical form of matter movement. However, one can hardly agree with this. All objects united by the concept of the physical have two most common physical properties- mass and energy. The entire physical world is characterized by a general all-encompassing law of conservation of energy.
Particular forms are included in the main ones. Thus, physical matter includes vacuum, fields, elementary particles, nuclei, atoms, molecules, macrobodies, stars, galaxies, Metagalaxy. Complex forms of matter and motion include astronomical (Metagalaxy - galaxy - stars - planets); geological (consisting of physical and chemical forms of movement of matter under the conditions of a planetary body); geographical (including physical, chemical, biological and social forms of movement of matter within the litho-, hydro- and atmosphere). One of the significant features complex forms the movement of matter lies in the fact that the dominant role in them is ultimately played by the lowest form of matter - physical. For example, geological processes are determined by physical forces: gravity, pressure, heat; geographical laws are determined by the physical and chemical conditions and relationships of the upper shells of the Earth.
Conclusion
The philosophy of science should logically be clear about what type of science it prefers to deal with. According to the already established, although quite young, tradition, all sciences were divided into three clans: natural, social, and technical. However, no matter how these groups of sciences compete with each other, in their totality they have a common goal associated with the most complete comprehension of the universe.
Issues of classification and interconnection of natural sciences are still discussed to this day. At the same time, there are different points vision. One of them is that all chemical phenomena, the structure of matter and its transformation can be explained on the basis of physical knowledge; There is nothing specific in chemistry. Another point of view is that each type of matter and each form of material organization (physical, chemical, biological) are so isolated that there are no direct connections between them. Of course, such different points of view are far from a true solution to the most complex issue of classification and hierarchy of the natural sciences. One thing is quite obvious - despite the fact that physics is a fundamental branch of natural science, each of the natural sciences (with the same common task study of nature) is characterized by its subject of research, its research methodology and is based on its laws, which are not reducible to the laws of other branches of science. And serious achievements in modern natural science are most likely with the successful combination of comprehensive knowledge accumulated over a long period of time in physics, chemistry, biology, and many other natural sciences.
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