Regularity essentially differs from law in that the latter always fits into a strict, stable system of laws of reality, while regularity enters into very unstable fluid systems that change depending on the range of facts generalized by it and changes in external conditions.
Explain what a "system-wide regularity" is.
A regularity that characterizes the fundamental features of the construction, operation and development of complex systems.
Explain what is meant by integrity.
The behavior of an object consisting of a set of interrelated elements: a change in any element of the system causes a change in other elements and in the system as a whole.
Thanks to the connections in the system (the system is a kind of holistic formation, in which not a single element feels “free”), the properties are transferred (transferred) from each element of the system to the other elements, due to which it behaves as a single whole - there is wholeness phenomenon. Integrity is determined by the quantity and quality of connections: the more connections and the stronger they are, the greater the integrity of the system.
Define emergence.
The emergence in the system of new integrative qualities that are not characteristic of its components.
Explain what is meant by additivity.
The case opposite to integrity is the behavior of an object consisting of a set of elements that are completely unrelated to each other: a change in any element is limited only to this element and does not affect others. In this case, the changes in the system are the sum of the changes in the individual elements.
Explain what is meant by synergy
The multiplicative effect of the interaction of two or more elements, characterized by the fact that it significantly exceeds the total effect of the interaction.
Explain what is meant by entropy in systems analysis.
quantitative assessment (degree) of disorder (freedom, diversity) in the system.
Explain the difference between an open system and a closed system.
An open system is a system capable of exchanging with the environment. cf. mass, energy and information.
A closed (closed) system is completely isolated from the environment.
31. Explain the essence of the second law (law) of thermodynamics.
Entropy closed system multiton increases with time, up to reaching the maximum value in the final equilibrium state, when the number of admissible states of the system is maximum.
Define fluctuation.
Random processes in which the system goes from a more probable state to a less probable one.
Explain the principle of entropy compensation.
The principle of entropy concentration states that the entropy of a non-isolated mb system is reduced only if the system interacts with another or other systems, i.e., in the process of interaction, a compensating increase in entropy occurs.
Define the term "life cycle".
The life cycle is the period of time from the emergence of a need for a system and its formation to a decrease in the efficiency of functioning and the "death" or elimination of the system.
Explain what is meant by history.
Any system cannot be unchanged, it not only arises, functions, develops, but also dies - any system has its own life cycle.
The concept of the life cycle is associated with the pattern of historicity - time is an indispensable characteristic of the system, therefore, each system is historical.
Explain the difference between development and growth.
Development - changes in the processes in the system over time, expressed in quantitative, qualitative and structural transformations from the lowest (simple) to the highest (complex).
Growth - Increasing the size of the system
Explain what is meant by polysystem.
Any object around of the world belongs as an element to many systems at the same time.
38. Give examples of polysystem.
An employee of a company belongs to one of its divisions, the company as a whole, a trade union organization, MB, a political party, a family, a sports club, a city, a country, etc. This gives rise to inconsistency in his behavior when entering into different systems, which causes the "split" of his consciousness.
Explain what is the pattern of uneven development and discrepancies in the rates of performance of functions by the elements of the system.
As a rule, systems still develop more often than they degrade. At the same time, the effect of uneven development of its elements is observed, and the more complex the system, the more this unevenness manifests itself: the elements of the system fulfill their local functions according to your pace. This naturally leads to a mismatch in the rates of performance of the functions by the elements, which threatens the integrity of the system and can lead to the loss of its ability to perform its functions, to the disorganization of the entire system and even to a stop. And the larger the size of the system, the more this pattern is manifested.
Explain what is the pattern of increasing the degree of ideality
We can observe that as systems develop, they become more compact, reliable, and efficient. This corresponds to the following regularity: the development of all systems goes in the direction of increasing the degree of ideality. It is understood that an ideal system is a system in which the mass, volume, unreliability, resource consumption tend to zero, although the system's ability to perform its functions does not decrease.
Explain what is the pattern of intrasystem and intersystem convergence.
When systems interact, some of their properties converge.
Convergence- convergence, rapprochement, mutual influence, interpenetration between aphid systems different elements within one system.
Explain what is the regularity of maintaining the equilibrium of the system by counteracting an external perturbation.
by counteracting external perturbation.
With an external perturbation that violates the equilibrium condition, oppositely acting processes develop in the system, and up to a certain level of perturbation they neutralize the effect of external influence.
Explain what is the pattern of the weakest points.
The stability (reliability) of the entire system depends on the weakest elements in the system. This pattern says that "where it is thin, it breaks there." The structural stability (inviolability, inviolability) of the system is determined by the stability of the weakest subsystem. Where the relative resistance is less than necessary, failure will occur.
44. Give examples of the manifestation of the 80/20 pattern
Most languages have about a million words (if not more). Most people only use a few hundred of these words a day.
Define classification.
Classification is the division of a set of objects into classes according to some of the most significant features.
Explain the essence of classification by origin.
Depending on the origin, systems are divided into natural and artificial (created, anthropogenic).
Explain the essence of the classification according to the objectivity of existence.
All systems can be divided into two large groups: real (material or physical) and abstract (symbolic) systems.
Real systems consist of products, equipment, machines and, in general, natural and artificial objects.
Abstract systems, in fact, are models of real objects - these are languages, number systems, ideas, plans, hypotheses and concepts, algorithms and computer programs, mathematical models, systems of sciences.
Show the differences between centralized and decentralized systems.
A centralized system is a system in which some element plays a major, dominant role in the functioning of the system.
A decentralized system is a system in which there is no main element.
Law is an internal, essential and stable connection of phenomena, which determines their orderly change. Based on the knowledge of the law, it is possible to reliably predict the course of the process. The law expresses one of the aspects of the essence, the knowledge of which in theory coincides with the transition from empirical facts to the formulation of the laws of the processes under study.
There are various types of laws in the objective world. Some of them express the functional relationship between the properties of an object (for example, the law of the relationship between mass and energy), others - the relationship between the material objects themselves in large systems (for example, the law of electromagnetic and gravitational interactions), between the systems themselves or between different states.
Laws also differ in their degree of generality and scope. Particular or specific laws express the relationship between specific physical, chemical or biological properties of bodies. Universal laws express the relationship between the universal properties and attributes of matter. They manifest themselves at all known structural levels of matter and are studied by philosophy.
All phenomena in the world obey certain laws, i.e. everything is conditioned (determined) by objective laws. Exist various forms and the laws of determination. If the previous states of the system uniquely predetermine its subsequent states, then the change in such a system is subject to dynamic laws, unambiguous determination. If, in a complex system, the previous states determine the subsequent ones ambiguously, then the change in such a system is subject to probabilistic-statistical laws.
In nature, laws are realized unconsciously, as a result of the objective interaction of material bodies. In society, all social laws are implemented due to the conscious purposeful activity of people, the subjective factor. The implementation of the law depends on the availability of appropriate conditions, and the creation of the latter ensures the transition of the consequences arising from the law from the realm of the possible to the realm. But people do not create the laws themselves, but only limit or expand the scope of their action in accordance with their needs and interests. Laws, on the other hand, exist objectively, independently of people's consciousness, as an expression of necessary, essential, internal relations between the properties of things or various development tendencies.
A scientific law is knowledge formulated by people in concepts, which, however, has its basis in nature (in objective reality). Empirical laws derived from experience have only relative value because they are valid only under certain conditions and always only when certain prerequisites are given. The ability to establish laws, i.e. reveal regular relationships, in the natural sciences is higher than in the sciences of the spirit (history, linguistics, etc.), because in the natural sciences it is easier and more complete to take into account all the factors that determine any event or state, and consider the connection of conditions . Phenomena do not occur as a result of any law, they are not caused by a law, but are always the result of corresponding laws. Man, as part of nature, is himself subject to natural law, in which he cannot change anything. But thanks to his knowledge of nature, he can, within certain limits, subordinate her own regularity, creating conditions under which, in accordance with a certain natural law, a certain event follows.
A regularity is a set of laws interrelated in content that provide a stable trend or direction in system changes. By revealing the laws operating in the world, the future is foreseen, the theory is put into practice. The regularities reflected in thinking form the core of any science. The power of a person over the surrounding world is measured by the volume and depth of knowledge of its laws.
Our life consists of different, sometimes unrelated events.
We logically substantiate them, putting things in order in perception. If the incident does not fit into the logical chain and causes unexpected consequences, this leads us to confusion. And the question arises: what was it?
Hi Andrew!
One of the varieties of unusual events are strange coincidences that occur in the life of any person. For example, we go somewhere, and there we meet an acquaintance whom we have just been thinking about; several times in a row we encounter the same person on the street; We call a friend and find out that at that very moment he wanted to call us.
My friend Andrey, once leaving a building in Myasnitskaya Street in Moscow, noticed two men unknown to him. He looked at them, and they looked at him. Andrei went to the subway, people followed. At the Okhotny Ryad station, he switched to Teatralnaya and got into the car to go towards the Tsaritsyno station. And I saw the same people at the end of the car, staring at him intently! He felt a little uneasy... Coming out of the subway, Andrei hurriedly got into the car and started the engine to go home. Then he again noticed those two at the traffic light, hit the gas and left.
The next day, Andrei received two calls one after another. different person, and everyone offered their help in teaching their son abroad. This happened just at the moment when he already despaired of solving this problem.
The game of probability is a sign of higher powers
Psychics and psychologists have come up with a special term for such situations - the phenomena of synchronicity. They occur contrary to all laws of nature and science. Magicians believe that coincidences are teaching material through which higher power make us more attentive and more serious about the episodes of our own lives.
The cosmos sends us impulses and tells us: the time has come, believe in chance, listen to your intuition! It has been noticed that the signs of fate given through coincidences are better perceived by people with an open mind - that is, those who prefer faith to dry logic. There are many more coincidences in their lives. It is also important that each of us has our own karma, but very often, under the influence of circumstances, people turn off the predestined path. And the higher powers, with the help of a series of signs, are trying to bring us back to it.
Psychology professor Allan Combs of the University of Asheville (North Carolina, USA) says: “My long-term observational experience shows that coincidences usually come in succession. The more you get used to them, the more often they happen. And if you dismiss them as stupid, they will avoid you. If you just show interest in them, then they can serve you well.
8 knots of fate
What to expect from those coincidences that happen to everyone from time to time? Here, not only psychology comes to our aid, but also folk household magic. It is impossible to guess all the possible options, but here is a list of the most common ones.
Pursued by a certain number. For example, all the most hard days in a year, relatives get sick, troubles happen. This means that you need to think about changing the scope of activity, and even the place of residence. If this is not possible, drink water only from underground sources on this day - this will take away illness and unnecessary trouble.
They got angry at a person, and trouble happened to him. This suggests that you are expecting some kind of decision from him in your favor. In order for him to accept it sooner, on such days cut the bread with a new, previously unused knife.
Same strangers met several times a day. So, soon you will receive news - good or bad. On the day of such a meeting, do not close the curtains at home at night. This will help to deflect bad news and attract good news.
They started making plans, and something bad happened. This means that you are on the wrong path, plans need to be reviewed and adjusted.
After a new love acquaintance, a former partner came. Your new choice is not your destiny. You are given a chance to think. Perhaps someone else is waiting for you and this meeting is just around the corner. To bring it closer, carry a magnet wrapped in paper in your purse.
We thought about a man and immediately met him on the street. Everything you do today will give a good result. But in order for all plans to come true, you need to exchange a large bill the next day and give a trifle to a beggar.
They lost a thing, and then a relative found himself in a difficult situation. With a loved one, things could have been much worse. But since you suffered, he got the lesser of two evils. Go to church and put two candles - for the health of your loved one and for the glory of God.
They wanted to call the person, but he called himself. The matter in question must be brought to an end.
Each person repeatedly in his professional activity or everyday life raises the question: “What consequences can a certain activity entail? Will an event take place? How to make a forecast of its onset?". Oddly enough, but the usual mathematical patterns and rules can often help us in such matters. This article will discuss what a pattern is, what they are, how they can be used.
Forecasting as a result of regularity
The very fact of a prediction or prediction is not a reason to believe that a certain individual has psychic abilities. What does it mean? It is possible to predict a certain event only using a pattern. This is the basis of the prediction. Using other probability theories, the laws big numbers, the forecast accuracy can be maximized. But without the use of patterns - it is impossible.
Types of patterns
In general, regularity is a certain interconnection of certain phenomena or procedures repeating from one cycle to the next, with the help of which the formation of stages and forms of development of the entire system of nature, society, and technologies is possible. Without these repetitions, the existence of just such a system would be impossible. Without patterns, the system will not only be different, but also unstable, enduring constant chaotic changes in all processes. There are two types of regularities: dynamic and statistical. A dynamic pattern is similar causal relationships. In other words, this is a type of causal relationship, as well as a permanent relationship, when specific indicators of the system in each specific case can determine the state of this system in the future. Such a pattern is inherent in all those phenomena that are completely controlled by physical, chemical, biological and mathematical laws.
Roughly speaking, a dynamic regularity makes it possible to determine certain regularities in the development of simple phenomena. Due to the fact that all simple phenomena obey the laws of physics, chemistry, thermodynamics, biology, under the same conditions, the same phenomenon will naturally repeat itself.
What is a regularity in statics? This is a pattern that manifests itself in a mass of homogeneous phenomena when summarizing the data of a statistical population and is based on the operation of the law of large numbers. This is a kind of causal relationship in which it is impossible to say something specific about the state of the system in the future. One can only assume the degree of probability with which this or that case of regularity can occur.
This pattern is inherent in social phenomena. In this case, human actions play an important role. The state of the individual, his subsequent actions after a certain impact can not always be predicted. A person is not a machine, so the pattern of determining human behavior is somewhat different from predicting the patterns of ordinary and simple phenomena.
To understand in more detail what a pattern is, you need to study the dynamics a little. In general, the dynamics of social phenomena is the result of the interaction of various causes and conditions, both social and natural, of a determining nature. When studying any pattern, they also use the laws of dynamics and do the following:
- Characteristics that are inherent in the phenomenon in different periods of time.
- Systems use statistical observation.
- Finding the "trend" indicator (the main trend in the development of the system).
- Changes in system indicators at microlevels
- Extrapolation and forecasting
Extrapolation and study of patterns
As scary as this concept sounds, it's actually quite simple. This concept is also closely related to regularity. What is extrapolation? This is an analysis of the obtained regularities of phenomena and their imposition on the boundary-permissible point of time in the future. This is forecasting, only more scientific language.
Extrapolation is impossible without the use of regularities. And patterns are not needed without their further extrapolation.