Having seized power in Petrograd, the Bolsheviks immediately began to implement the revolutionary reorganization of society. In this regard, it should be said about the nature and essence of the transformations they carry out. They are of central importance for understanding the entire period Soviet history and, unfortunately, are almost not touched upon in modern Russian historiography.
Along with the revolution, ordinary ordinary people appeared on the stage of historical action, or, as the writer A. Platonov called them, “the masses striving into the distance of history.” But simple and clear slogans, the language of which the revolution had previously spoken, were no longer enough. A huge, everyday, everyday work lay ahead to establish the economy and streamline all spheres of public life. However, it was difficult for the winners to understand this. The ease with which victory was won intoxicated the revolutionaries. The future seemed bright and cloudless. See you just around the corner world revolution. We, they say, have already started, now it’s up to the workers of other countries. In this general chorus, sounding at rallies, meetings, and congresses, sobering voices were almost not heard, saying that incredible difficulties and trials lay ahead for the winners. This, in particular, was one of the first to be sensitively grasped by Lenin and noted in his speech at III All-Russian Congress of Soviets in January 1918. But even he could not imagine what a heap of difficult problems the new regime would soon have to face and what a frail and ugly brainchild would appear in the birth pangs of the revolution.
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Sokolov A.K.
Course of Soviet history, 1917-1940: Textbook. manual for university students. - M.: Higher. school, 1999. - 272 p. The first in Russian historiography
Attitude to the revolution
The passing century, which replaced the relatively calm 19th century, was marked in history by gigantic global social and political cataclysms, and R
Contradictions of Russian modernization
First of all, it should be noted that there was a tightly drawn knot of contradictions that were insoluble within the framework of the existing state system in Russia. At the turn of the century, signs of
Changes in the world and Russia
The changes that took place in the world at the beginning of the century did not go unnoticed by contemporaries. Attempts to comprehend them gave rise to many theories of the development of modern capitalism. Marxism as one
Diversity of the Russian economy
The economic life of the country was characterized by four main structures or, more precisely, modern language, sectors of the economy: public, private, small-scale and patriarchal.
Features of industrialization in Russia
There were clear signs that Russia was entering a stage of rapid industrialization. For a short period from the end of the last century to the outbreak of war in 1914, the number of industrial enterprises
Foreign and domestic capital
A factor promoting the coexistence of the most advanced and backward forms of economy was foreign capital. He, of course, did not dominate the Russian economy. Foreign companies
The role of the state in the economy
Due to the high concentration of production and capital in Russia, developed types of monopolistic associations, banks, and joint-stock businesses have become widespread. Traditionally strong
Russian village
In the Russian village at the beginning of the century, the germs of new relationships were also observed. Over the vast expanse of the country, more than 20 million peasant farms and 130 thousand landowners were scattered
Social structure of Russian society
New processes that emerged in Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century affected the social structure of its population, civil society and government. These questions in historical literature
Russian intelligentsia
In connection with the middle strata, the question of the Russian intelligentsia should be raised. The non-Russian word “intelligentsia”, oddly enough, is a purely Russian concept, born in Russia
Peasantry
The most conservative element of Russian society, the “sluggish class,” as one of them put it famous historians, there was a peasantry that made up the overwhelming pain
Russian culture
One of the phenomena that marks Russia's entry into the stage of modernization is changes in the field of culture. One of its indicators is the mass education of the population. Often,
State structure
The political system of Russia at the beginning of the century underwent some changes. After the revolution of 1905, the country took several steps towards a constitutional monarchy, but clearly not enough
World War I
On August 1, 1914, Russia entered the First World War on the side of the Entente. Without touching on all the events during the war, let us dwell on the impact it had on general development si
February days
It is unlikely that public ferment, critical throwing of arrows from the Duma rostrum during the war years towards the tsar and the government should be considered signs of the onset of revolution. The revolution began from below and
Petrograd Soviet
The Petrograd Soviet was not a new institution. In essence, this was a revival of the Council, which played its role in the revolution of 1905, but with some differences dictated by a different situation. Firstly,
Temporary Committee of the State Duma
Against the background of the unfolding popular movement, the Provisional Committee of the State Duma, headed by M.V. Rodzianko, supported by the liberal opposition, took a number of actions to turn Russia into
Provisional Government
The formed Provisional Government headed by Prince G.E. Lvov, one of his first steps, declared loyalty to allied obligations and set a course for continuing the war. This step is not
Aggravation of the political situation
The state of the economy continued to deteriorate, prices rose, queues lengthened, speculation, looting, and crime spread. Both the city and the village were in poverty. The proclaimed freedoms also had
Bolsheviks and Lenin
In the February events, the role of the Bolsheviks was not so noticeable, although Soviet historiography tried in every possible way to exaggerate it. The political face of the party was inexpressive against the general background. Many
Lenin's April Theses
At first, no one attached much importance to Lenin’s call, attributing it to oratorical vehemence. However, in the “April Theses” published the next day, they were made public
Growing influence of the Bolsheviks
New Bolshevik slogans are taken to the streets and begin to take hold of the consciousness of the masses. The ranks of the party are rapidly expanding. Its numbers at the time of the convening of the VI Congress in July 1917 compared to the f
First crisis of the Provisional Government
On April 18, Foreign Minister Miliukov addressed the allies with a note containing assurances to wage the war to a victorious end. This was at odds with the position Petrograd Soviet, who stood behind the
Bolsheviks claim power
Against the backdrop of developing events, the Bolsheviks continued to “earn points” and make claims to power. For the first time this was openly said at a meeting of the First All-Russian Congress of the Soviet
July events
The bloody days of July 3-5 in Petrograd had a huge impact on the development of the situation. The reason for them was attempts, under the pretext of military needs, to withdraw revolutionary-minded units from the capital, early
The end of dual power
The balance of power shifted again after the July events. Kerensky declared himself the head of the government to save the revolution and assumed emergency powers. On July 24, the composition of the new team was announced.
Kornilov mutiny
At the end of August, Kerensky, according to some evidence, was presented with an ultimatum to transfer power to the Supreme Commander-in-Chief. In response, Kerensky announced the removal of Kornilov. The last one doesn't comply
Democratic meeting
On September 1, Kerensky declared Russia a republic. To confirm the legitimacy of the government, the convening of a Democratic Conference was proclaimed. This name was intended to emphasize his prince
The situation in the country
Meanwhile, the situation in the country in the fall of 1917 was on the verge of disaster, which was main reason radicalization of the masses, who were already demanding the most decisive action. No peace, no land, no bread
Bolshevik course towards armed uprising
The creation of a new coalition government coincided with the beginning of the activities of the Petrograd Soviet of a new convocation. L.D. became the Chairman of its Executive Committee. Trotsky is one of the key figures in the unfolding
October Revolution
The body for preparing the uprising was the Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC), created under the Petrograd Soviet, headed by the left Socialist Revolutionary P.E. Lazimir. (The Left Socialist Revolutionaries at this time were close to the Bolsheviks in
Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia
In accordance with the Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia, adopted by the Council of People's Commissars on November 2, 1917, the right of the peoples of Russia to self-determination up to and including secession was proclaimed. At the same time, apparently, the Bolsheviks
Events in Moscow
The second capital, Moscow, came under the rule of the Bolsheviks a week after the October Revolution in Petrograd, although there was some hitch here. Local VRK under the influence of moderate
Don and Kuban
Acute clashes accompanied the establishment of a new regime in the Don, Kuban and North Caucasus. In essence, this territory becomes a hotbed of gathering of right-wing anti-Bolshevik forces. Flocked here
Ukraine
But perhaps the most difficult situation after the October events was the situation in Ukraine. The development of the situation was determined by several factors. Firstly, a strong national movement that showed
Marxism as the basis of revolutionary changes
When analyzing the first actions of the Bolsheviks, it is necessary to constantly keep in mind that their actions came from below, directly from the masses themselves, which was dictated by the Marxist doctrine, that of all
State property
It is a big mistake to identify public property with state property, which, under the influence of tendencies characteristic of the beginning of the century, involuntarily occurred in the minds of the theoreticians of Bolshevism. State
State socialism
It’s a strange thing, but warnings about the quite probable and to some extent inevitable result of putting communist ideas into practice were not taken into account. Moreover, the existing flaws, to
Councils as a form of power
The practical implementation of Bolshevik ideas was carried out under the slogans of the dictatorship of the proletariat, the state form of which was proclaimed the Soviets. But the Soviets, by their origin, were not like that.
The Soviet government as an organ of revolutionary change
The main efforts of the Bolsheviks in organizing power from the very beginning were aimed at constructing a system of central administrative bodies. In theory, they should also have been controlled and
Creation of the Red Army
Perhaps the fastest way to debunk the myth was that it was possible to do without regular army, relying only “on the armed people”, since the Bolsheviks came to power at the moment of confrontation
Local authorities
Many patterns characteristic of the construction of higher and central bodies were repeated locally. True, it is necessary to take into account that here there was sometimes much more amateur activity and
Assessment of Bolshevik state building
This is what “the demolition of the old state machine and the construction of a new Soviet apparatus” looked like in the first months after October, known in literature as the “Smolny period,” i.e.
Public organizations
It must be taken into account that at the time of the revolution in the country there was huge number various kinds public organizations, associations, unions: industrial, professional, cooperative, women's
Bolshevik dictatorship
If we turn to the fate of political parties after the revolution and their relationships, we cannot fail to note several fundamental points. The Bolsheviks, of course, were interested in expanding
Leaders and masses
It is necessary to say about characters the first revolutionary transformations, people of a nameless mass with a riot of feelings and immaturity of thought. They personified an undeveloped, immature democracy, b
Bolshevik leaders
The focus of attention must be focused on the Bolshevik leaders, although today we must pay tribute to the leaders of other political parties, among whom there were many prominent figures, such as P. Milyukov,
Economic transformations of Soviet power
When analyzing the economic transformations of the Bolsheviks, several factors must be taken into account. Firstly, the situation in the country, which dictated a certain logic of action. The national economy was under
Nationalization
In such a situation, there was an attack on the private sector in industry and trade, the confiscation of enterprises from the previous owners by work collectives, local and central authorities. In owls
Transformations in the village
The transformations of Soviet power in the countryside came from the Decree on Land. But the decree itself was more of a declarative act than a practical guide. With the entry of the Left Socialist Revolutionaries into the government (after
Dispersal of the Constituent Assembly
The measures of the Bolsheviks irresistibly led the country towards civil war. Two more major events contributed greatly to this: the dispersal of the Constituent Assembly and Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. On the question of the Uchra
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and the revolt of the Left Socialist Revolutionaries
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, concluded in March 1918, also did not bring peace to the country. It was signed on humiliating terms for Russia, very far from a just “peace without annexations and indemnities.”
What is a civil war
Without dwelling in detail on the description of military actions, it is necessary to place some accents in order to understand the coverage of the history of the civil war in Russia. In historical literature from
Beginning of the Civil War
There is also no doubt that the country was gradually “creeping” into civil war. In April 1918, an uprising began on the Don, caused by the leftist-dogmatic attitude of the Bolsheviks to the "story"
Red and white terror
The question immediately arises about the Red and White Terror: which of them was more terrible? Soviet literature emphasized white terror. In the 1920-1930s. a huge number of documents were published,
First stage of the civil war
In covering the civil war, it is necessary to completely abandon the concept of the so-called “three campaigns of the Entente,” which was established in Soviet literature. Despite the participation of foreign troops
Second stage of the civil war
In general, however, the successes of the Red Army turned out to be temporary and fragile. While she was winning victories on the Western and Southern fronts, a new, no less formidable revolution began to unfold from the other end
Reasons for the defeat of the white movement
It's time to talk about why the counter-revolution in Russia, despite temporary successes and material and military assistance from abroad, was defeated. The first reason is
War communism
Previously, it was believed that the policy of war communism was forced, dictated by the specific situation of the civil war. However, if we recall the content and essence of the Bolsheviks’
Ideology and culture of war communism
The ideology of war communism had a peculiar character. It was a massive onslaught to introduce the elementary and primitive basics of communism into the minds of people. The Bolsheviks attached great importance
Polish-Soviet War
In 1920 continued fighting on the fronts. The main event was the war with Poland. On the creation of an independent state on Polish territory, which was part of Russian Empire, Germany announce
End of the civil war and transition to peace
Having transferred troops to the Southern Front, the Red Army launched an offensive against Wrangel, who, after the defeat of Denikin, was proclaimed Supreme Commander-in-Chief of southern Russia. In November 1920, troops from the south
The apogee of war communism
It is easy to see that most of them lay in the mainstream of war communism. But now that the military threat has passed, they can hardly be justified as forced. It becomes clear that
Economic devastation
While leaders in Moscow were developing grandiose plans for the future communist reconstruction of society, the situation in the country continued to deteriorate. Arriving in Soviet Russia at that time,
Food appropriation crisis
The surplus appropriation system in the countryside inexorably led to a reduction in peasant crops. The peasant was not interested in increasing production beyond the bare necessities, since there was still “surplus”
Population losses
No less dangerous were the manifestations of the crisis in the social sphere. Bukharin, in the book mentioned above, defined Russian society as a society of torn layers, which were to be united by the avant-garde about
Bureaucratization of the Soviet apparatus
In this social category It's worth going into more detail. She is probably the only one that, in the first post-revolutionary years, showed a trend towards sustainable growth, contrary to all predictions
Management crisis
The central authorities in every possible way limited local initiative and tried to resolve all issues through institutions directly subordinate to them or through their commissioners. There was a tendency towards
Crisis in the Soviets and other bodies
Centralization and bureaucratization led to a crisis of the very foundation new government- Soviet representative system. Real power increasingly “floated” out of the hands of representative bodies into
Crisis in the party
The situation within the Bolshevik Party itself was very difficult. Against the backdrop of general collapse, the Bolsheviks considered the proletariat to be the only cementing and binding force opposing it. But in view of his de
Awareness of the crisis
The question arises: did the Bolshevik leaders see the manifestations of the crisis or not? Many of them realized that not everything had worked out as planned, that institutions had arisen or were being restored,
Kronstadt mutiny
In the story of Kronstadt, it is necessary to note a number of significantly new points. Firstly, the sailors of the Baltic Fleet and the fortress, which always, even in the most difficult times for the Bolsheviks, spoke out against the Bolsheviks.
NEP assessment
The history of Soviet society in the 1920s is usually associated with the new economic policy that the Bolsheviks began to pursue after the end of the civil war. Literature usually narrows the meaning
Origins of NEP
The first question is where did the idea of NEP come from? Many considered themselves the authors of the idea, including those in the camp of the Bolshevik leaders, and Lenin was recognized as its creator for a long time. In 1921 Lenin in a brochure &
The meaning of NEP
True, here we encounter two trends that are still characteristic of the literature on the NEP. The first is his idealization, exaggeration of the successes and achievements of that time. Introduction
Transition to NEP
At the height of the military-communist fever in February 1920, one of its main standard-bearers, Trotsky, unexpectedly came up with a proposal to replace surplus appropriation with a fixed cash tax. However
Economic reform 1921-1923 in industry
According to this reform, a group of the largest and most efficient enterprises, more or less provided with fuel, raw materials, etc., was allocated in the public sector. They were directly subordinate to
Famine of 1921
The very first measures within the framework of the NEP began to have a beneficial effect, if not for the famine that gripped 25 grain-producing provinces of the Volga region, Don, North Caucasus and Ukraine in 1921. Donkey
Small industry and trade
By the mid-1920s, light and food industry enterprises in the country had largely restored pre-war production volumes. Here, the restoration of small and handicrafts played a significant role.
Cooperation
With the transition to NEP, the state provided an opportunity for development various forms cooperation. Consumer cooperation, closely connected with the village, became the fastest growing. However, other
Results of the transition to NEP
Since 1924, the situation in heavy industry began to “dissolve,” and the reactivation of large factories began. However, recovery here proceeded at a slower pace and the pre-war level was b
Workers' situation
For the class in whose name the dictatorship was carried out, i.e. the workers, the situation, compared to the pre-revolutionary one, undoubtedly improved. However, the changes that took place in it can be assessed
Peasantry
There were some positive changes in the Russian village of the 1920s. Inertia was also taking its toll Stolypin reform, the eviction of owners on farmsteads began to occur more often, the erosion of
Changes in the political structure
Often in the literature one can find the statement that the tragedy of the NEP was that economic measures were not supported by political reforms. This is not entirely true. Compared to the military
Comintern and international organizations
The period of the end of the civil war and the transition to the NEP was marked by the growing activity of Russian communists in the international arena. Created in 1919 on the initiative of Lenin, the Communist Interna
Ideology and culture
Elements of pluralism were observed in ideological and cultural life in the 1920s. At the beginning of the NEP, censorship was somewhat weakened. There were various scientific schools and directions. Enough god
Fighting religion
Anti-religious propaganda was especially violent and intolerant. Most of the country's population, especially the older generations, remained believers. The fight against religion was a kind of
Bolshevik national policy
There has been no consensus among the Bolshevik leadership about what it should be like since the pre-revolutionary party discussions on the national question. Almost all party leaders with
Prerequisites for the formation of the USSR
In the territory where Soviet power was established by 1922, ethnic composition, despite the change in borders, remained very colorful. 185 nations and nationalities lived here (according to the population census
The struggle for forms of unification
To determine the most appropriate and rational forms of association Soviet republics a special commission of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee was created into a single state, which from the very beginning had differences
Education of the ZSFSR
Transcaucasia was a complex set of national relations and contradictions that had persisted since ancient times. This region required particularly subtle and balanced approaches. Period of existence
"Kuibyshev Commission" and Lenin's intervention
In August 1922, to resolve the issue of unifying the Soviet republics, a special commission was formed under the chairmanship of V.V. Kuibyshev, but the most active role in it belonged to him
Education USSR
On December 30, 1922, at the Congress of Soviets, where delegations from the RSFSR, Ukraine, Belarus and the Trans-SFSR were represented, the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was proclaimed. Union Stro
National-state demarcation of Central Asia
One of the first events carried out within the Union was the “national-state delimitation Central Asia". In the region until 1924, there were, in addition to the Turkestan AS
Creation of new national entities
The creation of new republics and autonomous regions also took place in other regions of the country. In 1922, the Karachay-Cherkess Autonomous Okrug, the Buryat-Mongolian Autonomous Okrug (from 1923 - ASSR), Kabardino-Ba
Administrative-territorial transformations
The reform of the administrative and state structure of the country is closely related to the issues of nation-state building. The need for it was pointed out even during the revolution. But
Lenin's legacy as a weapon of political struggle
The struggle in the highest echelons of the party and state leadership initially unfolded around the “Leninist legacy” and resulted primarily in the problem of leadership in political and ideological
The essence of differences in the party leadership
Much of the literature on the history of the 1920s examines it exclusively in the context of personal struggles for power. This is a one-dimensional view. Political struggle "at the top"
Formation of nomenclature
The essence of the discussions of the 1920s is easier to understand in connection with the process of bureaucratization of Soviet society and the formation of its new ruling layer - the nomenklatura. The prerequisite for this process was the transformation
Stalin's role in the creation of the nomenklatura
Stalin was not one of the most famous Bolshevik leaders at the time; as the leader of the revolution and civil war he was exalted by later tradition. Trotsky called Stalin "you
Composition of the nomenclature
The date of birth of the nomenklatura can be considered the resolution of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) dated November 8, 1923, which arose in the bowels of the party apparatus, which determined the tasks of selecting leading party workers, all
The process of formation and reproduction of nomenclature
Personnel for the nomenclature and the “reserve” were obtained mainly through promotion. At first, unconditional priority was given to Bolsheviks with pre-revolutionary experience, but in the ranks of the RCP(b) there were only such people.
Nomenclature functioning system
Party congresses, congresses of Soviets, trade unions, etc. turn into mass gatherings of nomenklatura, with each body assigned its own role. The main thing is the party congress, which approves
Results of the restoration of the national economy
Within the framework of the NEP, the Soviet government managed to achieve some successes. However, it should be noted that they were in line with the recovery National economy, which by the middle of the decade
Contradictions of Soviet reality
Being on the rails of the NEP, the political leadership failed to solve a number of problems. Economic methods of managing the national economy were not fully introduced into the state mechanism,
NEP crisis
In the winter of 1927/28 Another NEP crisis broke out, leading to an adjustment in all directions of the internal and external policies of the country's leadership. "Socialist industrialization" acquired
Peasants
The social structure of the village in the 1920s, as the figures show, underwent quite significant changes compared to the pre-revolutionary one. The clear predominance of the middle peasants, it would seem, should
Dismantling of the NEP
Just a month after the XV Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, the Politburo in January 1928 voted for the use of emergency measures on grain procurements. About 30 thousand emissaries dispersed throughout the country - special
Socialist competition
At the beginning of 1929, a campaign began to launch mass socialist competition in factories, factories, transport, and construction. For several months the entire press, led by
XVI Party Conference
Following the plenum, the XVI Party Conference was convened, which was held under the sign of condemnation of the “right” in all areas of current politics. The conference rejected any attempts to
The plan becomes the “law” of life in Soviet society
The defeat of the “right” occurred to the accompaniment of the landslide collapse of the NEP in all areas of economic and social policy. The V All-Union Congress of Soviets in May 1929 adopted the first five
Speeding up industrialization and collectivization
In the summer of 1929, despite the adoption of the law on the five-year plan, a stir began around its control figures, and the movement came both from below and from above. There was a kind of exploitation of the revolution
Changes in international politics
Extremism in domestic politics also affected the actions of the Stalinist leadership in international life. In the second half of 1929, signs of a severe crisis became increasingly clear, engulfing
Establishment of the Stalinist dictatorship
On the eve of the 12th anniversary of the October Revolution, Stalin appeared in Pravda with an article “The Year of the Great Turning Point,” in which he spoke about laying the foundations for the construction of socialism and solving the problem of internal
Industrialization, collectivization, cultural revolution in the USSR
In Soviet literature, and not only in it, it was argued that in the 1930s a socialist society was basically built in the USSR. This means that the question of socialism is a central issue.
Problems of industrialization of the country
The first thing that deserves serious analysis is the problem of industrialization of the country. There is a large group of historians who prove that industrialization in the USSR essentially never happened.
Features of industrialization in the USSR
For many reasons, both objective and subjective, which will be discussed later, the implementation of industrialization in the USSR took place according to a slightly different scenario than was envisaged in theory.
The price of industrialization
With the extensive cost mechanism that characterizes the planning and distribution system, the question of the “price” that was paid for industrialization becomes especially acute. This one with
Collectivization of agriculture
Putting forward a course towards "socialist transformation" Agriculture", the Bolsheviks in Russia, of course, counted on positive changes in the agricultural sector and did not at all set their goal
Modernization of other sectors of the national economy
A systematic view of the modernization of the entire national economy requires paying attention to such sectors as transport, construction, trade, public utilities. By m
Difficulties of forced industrialization
The inflation of the first five-year plan targets led to devastating consequences for the economy, although at first the situation on the “industrialization front” suggested some grounds for opportunism.
"Culprits" of difficulties
Economic difficulties were attributed to the machinations of “saboteurs,” “saboteurs,” which included “old” or “bourgeois” specialists. Their calls are real
Implementation of the collective farm system
A number of new factors appeared that forced the peasants who remained in the countryside to reconcile with the collective farms. According to the charter of the agricultural artel, its property was indivisible funds,
Escape from the village
Nevertheless, despite this barrier, the outflow of residents from the village continued. For this purpose they used different ways, which formed unique “channels” of social movements in Soviet
Attempts to overcome crisis phenomena
The catastrophic consequences of the first years of the “socialist offensive,” the chaos and disorder in the country, required the Stalinist leadership to take some steps. First symptoms changed
Famine of 1932 and its causes
The implementation of forced collectivization had a strong impact on the results of agricultural production. According to official data in 1930 (a year with exceptionally favorable weather conditions
Results of the first five-year plan
The winter of 1932/33 was one of the most difficult in the history of the 1930s. The time has just come to sum up the results of the first five-year plan. By most indicators it failed, including by industry
Growing public discontent
Nevertheless, it was not possible to completely drown out the voice of truth. Numerous sources of that time, which are stored in archives, indicate an increase in public discontent, expressed in
Position in the party
At the same time, the size of the party during the years of the first five-year plan, due to massive recruitment campaigns, more than doubled and reached 3.7 million members in 1932. The CPSU(b) was increasingly losing its features
Life, culture, ideology
With the beginning of the “socialist offensive,” the everyday and spiritual aspects of society’s life undergo significant changes in accordance with the emerging new arrangement of social and
Second Five Year Plan
The Second Five-Year Plan (1933-1937) was marked by the struggle of several trends. On the one hand, there is a continuation of the policy of assault, the “great leap”, designed to be built in the shortest possible time with
Tightening of domestic policy
The years of the Second Five-Year Plan were characterized by increased administrative, police and ideological pressure in all areas of policy, shackling society with iron hoops, and increasingly
Murder of Kirov
On December 1, 1934, Kirov was killed in Leningrad. The killer, a young communist L. Nikolaev, managed to get into Smolny and carry out his terrorist act. This murder is still widely discussed
Completion of the industrial breakthrough and its significance
The new five-year plan came at a time when most of the previously planned facilities were to be put into operation. And indeed, if the first five-year plan provided for the introduction of
Changes in economic management
Gradually, there was a change in the methods of managing the national economy, their adaptation to the planning and distribution system. The so-called “socialist” system was being introduced everywhere.
Curtailment of foreign economic relations
Throughout the second five-year plan, the USSR's foreign trade was curtailed. On average, compared to the first, its volume decreased by more than 2 times. Thus, oil exports decreased in 1937.
Signs of stabilization
After a number of years of chaos, the life of the country, outwardly, seemed to begin to acquire signs of stability. On January 1, 1935, food cards were abolished. Money and the opportunity to earn more
Stakhanov movement
The Stakhanov movement became an extremely controversial phenomenon of that time. In August 1935, miner Alexei Stakhanov cut down 102 tons of coal, many times exceeding the daily norm. Following the example of Stakhanov mouth
Sphere of forced labor
During the Second Five-Year Plan, the sphere of forced labor received its organizational design and became an important factor in economic development, acquiring enormous proportions. A significant part of her sucks
Results of the second five-year plan
The second five-year plan was completed in 1937. Like the previous one, it was not met in most respects, although its production targets were much closer to reality. Official
Changes in spiritual life and ideology
During the Second Five-Year Plan, major changes took place in the spiritual life of Soviet society and ideology. They are marked by the growth of two trends. On the one hand, the affirmation in society of "Stalin
Foreign policy and international relations
Internal changes in the country were inextricably linked with the change in the role of the USSR in the international arena, with the processes taking place in the world workers', communist and national liberation countries.
Socialism in theory and practice
First of all, it is necessary to clarify what socialism is and how the main features of Soviet society of the 1930s relate to its provisions. This is the most difficult question, since they have to be proportionate
Property relations
It is from these positions that we must look at the theory and practice of Stalinist “socialism.” Its economic basis is the concept of socialist, i.e., public property, which supposedly exists
Soviet state
It has already been said that the state form of ownership is not fully social. It does not overcome the alienation of workers from the means of production. In the employee’s mind it is
The role and place of nomenklatura in Soviet society
The greatest power and influence in Soviet society belonged to the party-state apparatus - the nomenklatura. She was entitled to the greatest privileges and benefits. Sometimes this was interpreted as
Public expenditures and public consumption funds
The theory of socialism provides for higher productivity of social labor, higher rates of growth of production and a more equitable distribution of the produced product among members.
Socialism as creativity of the masses
The classics of Marxism argued that socialism without political freedoms- not socialism. To talk about the existence of such freedoms under the conditions of “Stalinist socialism” would be hypocrisy, although dir.
Totalitarianism
It seems to many, especially young researchers, that turning to this theory, borrowed from Western social thought, allows us to understand and explain all the vicissitudes of quite complex problems.
Advantages and disadvantages of the totalitarian model
The attractiveness of this theory also lies in the fact that it has a certain plausibility, just like the previous official history of Soviet society. Moreover, as presented
Constitution of 1936
The decision to develop a new Constitution was made in 1935 at the VII Congress of Soviets. Some authors believe that it occurred at a time when the political leadership swung towards whether
Interpretation of mass repressions in literature
There is a huge literature on mass repressions in the USSR in the 1930s. A large group of authors connect them with the general repressive nature of the Soviet regime. The dimensions of the Gulag grow in their works
Intensifying mass repressions
The flywheel of repression was gaining momentum. An important milestone was the February-March plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks. A study of his materials shows that the hysteria associated with repression and the “execution psychologists
Rollback of mass repression
In January 1938, the plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks adopted a resolution condemning the mistakes of party organizations in expelling communists from the party and the formal bureaucratic attitude towards the appeals of those expelled. Condemning
USSR on the eve of the war
By the end of the 1930s, new, rather complex problems and trends emerged in the development of Soviet society, inherited from the period of the “socialist offensive.”
International situation
Meanwhile, events in the world, indeed, were becoming more and more menacing and had an impact on the life of Soviet society. The feeling of an impending war that was getting closer and closer
Soviet-German Pact
At the XVIII Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks in March 1939, Stalin said that the USSR would not allow itself to be fooled and was not going to “pull chestnuts out of the fire for the warmongers.” Under the "arsonists"
Beginning of World War II
On September 1, 1939, German troops invaded Poland. England and France immediately declared war on Germany. The Second has begun World War, in which everything was involved larger number states and territories
Soviet-Finnish War
Over time Soviet Union made a number of claims against Finland. They contained demands for the demilitarization of the border zone, moving the border 70 km from Leningrad, eliminating fi
Politics in the annexed territories
Thus, within a year since the conclusion of the Soviet-German Pact, the territory of the USSR increased significantly (by approximately 300 thousand sq. km), and its population grew by approximately 23 ml
Growing military threat
Perhaps, Hitler took advantage of the fruits of the Soviet-German pact to a much greater extent. It was the pact that opened the way for the victorious march of the Wehrmacht armies across Europe. Busy with his own affairs, Hitler's
The situation in the USSR
Events in the international arena, as already mentioned, most directly influenced the situation in the USSR, much more than in previous years, but still the main thing is that must be accepted
Shortages and queues
A special position remained for heavy industry (group "A"). The lion's share of capital investments continued to be directed here to the detriment of light industry sectors (group "B"
Defense activities
The position of the emerging military-industrial complex (MIC) was rapidly strengthening in the country, the maintenance of which placed a heavy burden on the entire national economy. The course to "strengthen the defense
Village
The further expansion of military production also affected agriculture. The increase in the “motorization” of the armed forces led to the fact that there were fewer trucks arriving in the villages and MTS.
Control system
By the end of the 1930s, a system of economic and state management had finally taken shape, which was called in our literature administrative-command and, in its main features, existed for quite some time.
Population of the USSR
First, we must say about the dynamics of the total population of the USSR in the 1930s. It was undoubtedly influenced by many factors that are not easily taken into account together. These include
Composition of the population of the USSR
For a long time it was almost impossible to carry out a detailed analysis of the composition of the population of the USSR at the end of the 1930s, since practically the only source for this was the materials of the 1939 census.
Social structure of Soviet society
However, the social structure of Soviet society experienced the most dramatic change. Speaking at the XVIII Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), Stalin argued that Soviet society after the liquidation of capitalist
Literacy and education
Before moving on to the analysis of individual social groups, a few words should be said about the indicators characterizing changes in the level of literacy and education of Soviet society. Number of certificates
Management personnel
Education, party affiliation, professional experience are the three main objective factors that contributed to the movement of Soviet people along the social ladder, their careers and career advancement, which
Nomenclature
The upper layer of management personnel who occupied nomenklatura positions, or simply the nomenklatura, but as a social group, which included people's commissars, their deputies and members of collegiums, bosses
Contradictions within the ruling elite
There is a tradition of depicting the CPSU(b) of that time as political organization, welded together by unity of thoughts and actions, especially after “deviations” were defeated in it and destroyed
Social structure of the village
Instead of individual peasants, the main social group in the countryside, as well as throughout Soviet society, became collective farmers - a class located at the bottom rung of the social ladder. Already in those years
Public sentiment
Typically, social consciousness in the literature of the pre-war period is characterized in terms of unity and one-dimensionality. However, this is far from the case, especially if you analyze its lower floors - ordinary
History and LED
The Second Congress of Soviets, in the absence of the right Socialist Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, representatives of other socialist parties, they left the meeting protesting against the overthrow of the Provisional Government, adopted a Decree on Peace, Russia's exit from the war, a Decree on Land, the elimination of landlordism, the transfer of land to peasants on an equal basis, a Decree on Power, the establishment of Soviet power, the formation of the Council of People's Commissars headed by V. The executive body of power became the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, to which Bolsheviks and Left Socialist-Revolutionaries were elected. Finally triumphant...
Soviet Russia and the USSR in the first half XX century
The first transformations of the Bolsheviks
The revolution and the first transformations of the Bolsheviks. IN night from 25 to 26 October 1917In Petrograd, under the leadership of the Military Revolutionary Committee of the Petrograd Soviet, an armed uprising was defeated.The provisional government was overthrown and immediately assembled II All-Russian Congress of Sovietsdeclared the victory of the socialist revolution. The Second Congress of Soviets, in the absence of the right Socialist Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, and representatives of other socialist parties (they left the meeting protesting against the overthrow of the Provisional Government), adopted Peace Decree (Russia's exit from the war), Decree on land (liquidation of landownership, transfer of land to peasants on an equal basis, Decree on power (establishment of Soviet power, educationCouncil of People's Commissarsled by V.I. Lenin. The agrarian question was resolved on the basis of peasant orders on land.
The executive body of the government was the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, to which Bolsheviks and Left Socialist-Revolutionaries were elected. Rapid nationalization of large industry, banks, and transport followed; this policy was called “Red Guard attack on capital" Finally, the triumphant march of Soviet power was expressed in the rapid and widespread transfer of local power into the hands of the Soviets. TO March 1918 . Soviet power was established almost throughout the entire territory of Russia. From the very beginning, its basis was the Bolshevik Party: having rejected the proposal of the left parties to create a “uniform socialist government” (although it was supported by part of the Bolshevik leadership), Lenin firmly defended the course towards the formation one-party authorities.
Fate Constituent Assembly. Elections, in Constituent Assembly,held on November 12, 1917, brought victory to the socialist parties, but among the socialists the majority of votes were received not by the Bolsheviks (23%), but by the Socialist Revolutionaries (about 40%). This state of affairs could not suit Lenin. The Bolsheviks, who seized power by armed force, did not intend to share it with anyone and were guided by a strict course of suppressing all opposition movements. Parliamentary democracy, according to the Bolsheviks, was incompatible with the dictatorship of the proletariat and the building of socialism. To the assembledJanuary 5, 1918 To the Constituent Assemblyan ultimatum was delivered: to approve the decision adopted the day before by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee"Declaration of the Rights of Working and Exploited People"(the main thesis is about the transfer of full power to the Soviets). The Constituent Assembly's refusal to accept this declaration became the pretext for its dispersal.The Constituent Assembly did not fulfill its purpose. It did not create a government recognized by the majority of the people, did not carry out urgent and long-awaited reforms, and did not prevent the civil war in Russia. However, its significance is great.
On the one hand, it was the center of all political and legal discussions after February 1917. All parties connected the future of Russia with him, her government structure, legal system, stability. The Constituent Assembly was not a state structure. His powers were much broader. It was supposed to establish a new system of legal relations, Russian statehood as a whole.
The Constituent Assembly was truly a national representation. Never before in world practice has the population been endowed with such broad voting rights. All Russian citizens over the age of 21 had the right to vote and be elected (at the front from 18 years of age). A special feature of the elections was that for the first time in world practice women participated in them on equal terms. They voted for party lists according to the proportional principle. Only those in custody and the mentally ill did not take part in the elections. Russia has set an example of the most democratic electoral law in the world, becoming an example for the development of election legislation in Western democracies in XX century. The Bolsheviks' dispersal of the Constituent Assembly became the formal reason and main slogan of anti-Bolshevik protests during the Civil War.
On the other hand, the events of January 6, 1918 did not receive the proper reaction in society. Although representatives of almost all political parties (except for the Bolsheviks and the Left Socialist Revolutionaries) sharply condemned the actions of the Bolsheviks, the bulk of the population reacted rather indifferently to the dispersal of the meeting. The deputies’ appeal “To all citizens of Russia” with a call to “stop criminal violence” had virtually no impact. Only a small group of active political figures, representatives of the intelligentsia, entrepreneurs, and part of the military considered the Constituent Assembly to be an important and highest point in the development of Russia after February 1917. For the majority of the population, this was just another episode of a difficult time. The peasantry, for example, already received land in January under the land decree. All this once again illustrates the difference that arose between political decisions and their perception.
Bolshevik politics. The Bolsheviks hastened to consolidate their victory. For this On January 10, the III was convened All-Russian Congress of Soviets, selected from delegates from the Bolshevik Party and the Left Socialist Revolutionaries. Opposition opposition was weak. The congress approved the policies of the Council of People's Commissars and the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and decided to eliminate all references to the Constituent Assembly in Soviet legislative acts. The congress removed the prefix “temporary” from the name of the Soviet government, thereby legitimizing its power.
Vital for the new regime in the first months of its existence was the question of peace with Germany. At the cost of huge territorial concessions (at the cost of the loss of Finland, the Baltic states, part of Belarus, Kars, Batum, Ardahan, the withdrawal of troops from Ukraine) and the payment of multi-billion dollar indemnities March 3, 1918 . An agreement to end the war with Germany was signed in Brest-Litovsk. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk allowed the Bolsheviks to remain in power. At the same time, it led not only to territorial and material losses, but also to the beginning of foreign intervention, a military-political blockade of Russia, to a deepening of the split in society, and became a step towards the beginning of the Civil War.
July 10, 1918 V All-Russian Congress of Sovietsapproved the Constitution of the RSFSR: the principle of the omnipotence of the Soviets, the tasks of establishing the dictatorship of the proletariat and the poor peasantry, vesting basic political rights only with workers, approving the name of the state Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR).
The Soviet system of government, declared by the Bolsheviks, provided for the formation of government bodies in the center and locally from the bottom up. Workers elected Soviets, which in turn formed executive bodies from among their members. Governance of the country was to be transferred into the hands not of professional officials, but of the working people. Their composition had to be renewed annually. The utopian nature of such a plan became clear immediately after the Bolsheviks took power. Sabotage by former officials completely paralyzed the work. By the end of November 1917, the Bolsheviks managed to subjugate the old apparatus. Along with the employees, all the negative features of the Russian bureaucracy penetrated into the new government: bribery, red tape, etc. The Bolsheviks not only did not abandon the use of professional bureaucrats, but also gradually increased their number.
The number of Soviets grew steadily. At the same time, they gradually lost their power functions. They became part state system. Since July 1918, after the suppression of the rebellion of the left Socialist Revolutionaries, a one-party system was established in the country. The Soviets gradually came under the influence of local and central committees of the RCP(b).
Supreme body authorities, according to The Constitution became All-Russian Congress of Soviets. Only workers took part in the elections. Entrepreneurs, clergy, former police officers, as well as persons who used hired labor were deprived of voting rights. The Bolsheviks, being a workers' party, were always wary of the peasantry. Constitution established different standards of representation for urban and rural population(respectively, 1 deputy from 25 and 125 thousand people). The Congress met periodically, and therefore elected the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK) from among its members.
The Bolsheviks considered the system of separation of powers unnecessary. Due to this All-Russian Central Executive Committee was the supreme legislator and executive body authorities. Gradually, the work of this body was concentrated in the hands of several people Presidium All-Russian Central Executive Committee. The Soviet government, according to the constitution, was the Council of People's Commissars(SNK). SNK often replaced the activities of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. So in the first year of Soviet power, he adopted more than 85% of decrees, i.e. supreme legislative acts
In fact, under a one-party system, power was concentrated in the hands of the Party Central Committee. Gradually, control of the country passed into the hands of senior party leaders, who simultaneously worked in All-Russian Central Executive Committee, and in the Council of People's Commissars, replacing the principles of broad popular representation.
In the context of the beginning of the civil war and the economic crisis, a number of emergency governing bodies appeared. So in 1918 the Council of Workers' and Peasants' Defense appeared, which concentrated most of the functions in its hands All-Russian Central Executive Committee and Council of People's Commissars. It was led by V.I. Lenin . Personally, it included the same figures as other higher bodies. However, its functions were not spelled out in the constitution, which means its activities were not even formally limited by law. The legal method of governing the country was replaced by a directive one, giving more and more power to a small group of party functionaries. The principle of the “dictatorship of the proletariat” was gradually replaced by the dictatorship of the party, or rather its leaders. Locally, power was transferred to revolutionary committees, which replaced the activities of councils and their executive committees.
In the economic policy of the Soviet government in 1917-1920. There are two interconnected periods: “Red Guard attack on capital"(until the summer of 1918) and "war communism." Fundamental differences in the directions, forms and methods there was no: the emphasis on strict centralization of the economy, the course towards the nationalization and socialization of production, the confiscation of landownership, the nationalization of the banking and financial systems were characteristic of both the “Red Guard attack” and “war communism”.
By the summer of 1918, the following activities had been carried out: createdSupreme Council of National Economy (VSNKh), who was supposed to manage all sectors of the economy that were transferred from the hands of private entrepreneurs to state ownership (nationalized); banks were nationalized (December 1917), the merchant fleet (January 1918), foreign trade (April 1918), large industry (June 1918); the redistribution of landowners' land between peasants was carried out on an equal basis (“fairly”); a food dictatorship regime was declared (May 1918, state monopoly, fixed prices, ban on private trade in grain, fight against “speculators,” creation of food brigades).
Policy " war communism."With the outbreak of the Civil War, the centralization of economic, military, financial, food and other resources in the hands of the state reached a qualitatively new level. Policy"war communism"in the economic and social spheres consisted of the following elements: the liquidation of private property, the nationalization of large, medium and even small industry, its nationalization; subordination of industry and agriculture to the direct leadership of central executive authorities, often endowed with emergency powers and acting by order, command methods; curtailment of commodity-money relations, introduction of direct product exchange between city and village based on surplus appropriation (since January 1919 .) confiscation from peasants of all surplus grain in excess of the minimum established by the state; approval of the state distribution system using coupons and cards, equalization wage, universal labor conscription, the creation of labor armies, the militarization of labor.
Economics played an important role in Marxist teaching. According to it, the evolution of mankind represented a change in economic formations: primitive communal system, slavery, feudalism, capitalism, socialism and, finally, communism. Russia on the eve of the civil war was a moderately developed agrarian-industrial country with elements of remnants of feudalism. The majority of the population was close to the ideas of collectivism and egalitarianism. But these were not signs of communism, but remnants of traditional pre-capitalist relations.
In the program of the RCP (b), adopted by the VIII Congress in March 1919, the policy of “war communism” was theoretically interpreted as a direct transition to a communist society. “War communism,” on the one hand, made it possible to subordinate all resources to the control of the “warring party,” turn the country into a single military camp and, ultimately, win the war. Civil War. On the other hand, it did not create incentives for economic growth, generated discontent among almost all segments of the population, and created an illusory belief in violence as an all-powerful lever for solving all the problems facing the country.
With the end of the war, military-communist methods exhausted themselves. This was not immediately understood: back in November-December 1920, decrees were adopted on the nationalization of small industry, on the abolition of payments for food, fuel, and utilities.
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Socio-economic transformations:
The very first months of the Bolsheviks' stay in power and their revolutionary transformations showed the new government's unpreparedness for an effective economic policy. The greatest attention was paid to " destructive" And " destructive» means in developing a strategy for economic reforms.
In the social sphere, estates were eliminated and the equality of nations was declared. The proletariat (dictatorship of the proletariat) and the poor peasantry were declared the ruling classes. As a class, the nobility, senior officers and opposition intelligentsia were physically destroyed. Traders, clergy, former police officers and peasant exploiters (kulaks who used hired labor) were deprived of their political rights. The intelligentsia was seen as a layer between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
In the Union of Artists in 1918, the implementation of the Decree on Land began. The lands confiscated from the landowners were distributed among the peasants; the Bolsheviks hoped that the city would supply them with bread. However, the village agreed to provide food only in exchange for industrial goods. goods. The inability to organize the supply of manufactured goods to the village in exchange for agricultural products led to an even greater intensification of the food crisis. IN As a result, the Bolsheviks began a policy of forcible seizure food, executions were carried out. The campaign to confiscate the property of the bourgeoisie and nationalize enterprises became widespread. Set of actions
Establishment of Soviet power:
The process of creating a new state covered the period from October 1917, the beginning of October revolution, until the summer of 1818, when Soviet statehood was enshrined in the Constitution. The central thesis of the new government was the idea of exporting the world revolution and creating a socialist state. As part of this idea, the slogan “Workers of all countries, unite!” was put forward. The main task of the Bolsheviks was the issue of power, so the main attention was paid not to socio-economic transformations, but to the strengthening of central and regional authorities.
On October 25, 1917, the Second Congress of Soviets adopted the Decree on Power, which declared the transfer of all power to the Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies. On October 27, 1917, it was decided to form the Soviet government - the Council of People's Commissars (S/W), which should operate until elected. To combat counter-revolution and sabotage, the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission (VChK) was formed, headed by F. Dzerzhinsky. Revolutionary courts were created for the same purpose.
In November-December 1917. elections to the Constituent Assembly took place, during which Social Revolutionaries Bolsheviks - 24%, Thus, were forced to disperse constituent Assembly. On November 28, a blow was dealt to the cadet party - arrests took place
POLITICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC. TRANSFORMATION OF THE BOLSHEVIKS IN 1917-1918.
| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Article topic: | POLITICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC. TRANSFORMATION OF THE BOLSHEVIKS IN 1917-1918. |
| Rubric (thematic category) | Right |
Having seized power as a result of the victory of the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks immediately began to rebuild Russia. They carried out the implementation of their ideas under the slogan of the dictatorship of the proletariat, the state. the form of which was the Soviets. They became the main bodies of central and local government. At the II All-Russian Congress of Soviets, the Council of People's Commissars (SNK) was formed. V.I. Lenin became the chairman of the ᴇᴦο. Attempts by a number of parties and organizations to oust Lenin and his supporters from the government and create a coalition (or homogeneous) socialist government were decisively suppressed. The decree on the formation of the Council of People's Commissars determined the list of people's commissariats (People's Commissariats) and the commissars who headed them. At first, the People's Commissariats were, in fact, the former ministries of the Provisional Government. Their tasks were to ensure continuity in management, suppress sabotage by employees of old institutions, and also attract workers and revolutionary-minded specialists to the apparatus.
But gradually the Bolsheviks began to create “their own” governing bodies. One of them is the Supreme Council of the National Economy (VSNKh), ʼʼ Main Headquarters socialist industry. The Supreme Economic Council was established by decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee on December 2, 1917 and was formed as an elected collegial body intended to organize the entire national economy and financial affairs of the Soviet Republic. The ᴇᴦο composition included representatives All-Russian Council workers' control, the Central Council of Factory Committees, industry trade unions; The Presidium of the Supreme Economic Council was headed by N. N. Osinsky (Obolensky), then (from February 1918) by A. I. Rykov. The Supreme Economic Council apparatus included the former state regulatory bodies, the boards of the largest trusts and syndicates. A network of territorial national economic administrations (regional, provincial, etc.) arose locally and had relative independence. Supreme body, decisions cat. were mandatory for all economic entities. activities, became the Congress of National Economy Councils. Thus, the system of economic bodies was created in accordance with the Bolshevik ideas about democracy in the sphere of government.
Initially, the Bolsheviks did not plan to create any punitive bodies. They believed that in the event of an internal threat, the Soviets, elected courts, and people's militia would be able to cope with this task. Their hopes did not come true. Then, by decree of the Council of People's Commissars of December 20, 1917, the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution, Sabotage and Profiteering (VChK) was formed under him. The board of the Cheka was headed by F. E. Dzerzhinsky. However, as the situation in the republic worsened, the Cheka began to turn into the “punishing sword of the dictatorship of the proletariat,” which did not recognize any laws.
1. Dismantling the temporary bourgeois state apparatus. Formation of Bolshevik statehood The main work on the construction of the socialist apparatus government controlled began immediately after the victory of the armed uprising in Petrograd, Moscow and other large industrial centers. Within a few months - from October 25, 1917 to mid-February 1918 - Soviet power was established throughout almost the entire territory of Russia. As a result of the October coup, the soviets from bodies of the opposition turned into bodies of the new emerging government. A strong centralized power was needed and such power was proposed by the Bolshevik Party. In a short time, the old central authorities were abolished: the Senate, the State Chancellery, the Synod, ministries, the judicial system and punitive institutions. Simultaneously with the liquidation of the old state machine, the construction of a new Soviet apparatus was underway in the center and locally. Soviet state building was characterized by the absolute avoidance of breaks in continuity in the presence of power. Supreme body state power was the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, and between congresses - the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK). The All-Russian Central Executive Committee supervised the activities of local councils. On October 26 (November 8), 1917, the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets adopted a decree “On the establishment of the Council of People’s Commissars,” thus forming the world’s first workers’ and peasants’ government, of which V.I. Lenin was elected chairman. By decree of the Council of People's Commissars of November 22, 1917, a system of new judicial institutions was created. The institution of local judges elected by the Soviets was established as the main judicial authority. Cases of counter-revolutionary activities, looting, theft, sabotage, etc. were considered by revolutionary tribunals elected by provincial or city councils. By decree of the People's Commissar of Internal Affairs of October 28, 1917, a workers' and peasants' militia was created, and on December 7, 1917, the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission (VChK) was created to fight the counter-revolution. On January 15, 1918, the Soviet government adopted a decree on the creation of the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army. On the periphery, the positions of provincial and district commissars of the Provisional Government were eliminated. The creation of Soviets of Workers', Peasants' and Soldiers' Deputies began in villages and volosts. City and zemstvo institutions were abolished. Their functions were transferred to the Soviets. On the periphery, the positions of provincial and district commissars of the Provisional Government were eliminated. The creation of Soviets of Workers', Peasants' and Soldiers' Deputies began in villages and volosts. City and zemstvo institutions were abolished. Their functions were transferred to the Soviets. On January 5, 1918, the constituent assembly was opened. He was asked to approve the resolutions of the 2nd Congress of Soviets, that is, to recognize as legal the October Revolution, the decrees on peace and land, the Council of People's Commissars and the “Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People.” But the constituent assembly did not approve the Bolshevik proposal by a majority vote. And on January 6 it was dissolved. January 10-12, 1918 The 3rd All-Russian Congress of Soviets took place, which adopted the decision “On federal institutions Russian Republic”, the first paragraph, which read: “The Russian Socialist Soviet Republic is established on the basis of a voluntary union of the peoples of Russia, as a federation of Soviet republics of these peoples.” This is how the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic was formed. By February 1918, the process of the initial strengthening of the Soviets was basically completed, which made it possible to formalize in legislation the transition to the liquidation of the old bourgeois local government bodies. 2. Formation and development of the Soviet legal system legal system began to take shape from the first day of creation Soviet state. At Lenin’s suggestion, it was decided to call government acts Decrees - for example