The consulate and formation of the Napoleonic Empire are the most important. Consulate and formation of the Napoleonic Empire. Napoleon's wars of conquest


Formation of the city consulate - adoption of the new French Constitution, establishment of the consulate. 1st consul 2nd consul 3rd consul Making laws Declaring war Appointing ministers and officials Making peace LEGAL ADVISORY VOICE


Consulate policy 1799 – 1804 – Consulate in France. Consulate policy: 1. Development of entrepreneurship. 2. Financial reform - introduction of the franc. 3. Acceleration of the industrial revolution. Strikes and workers' unions were prohibited. Those dissatisfied with the policies of the First Consul faced executions, arrests, and exile.


France becomes an empire - the establishment of an empire in France. Why did Napoleon need an army? Who could serve in Napoleonic army? How many years did you serve there? What types of troops were Napoleon's army divided into? What does the “principle of equal opportunity” declared by Napoleon in the army mean?








Wars of conquest between the consulate and the empire. Date Place of battle Result 1805 Landing in England The army was transferred to Vienna 1805 Trafalgar Victory of the British fleet under the command of Admiral Nelson 1805 Austerlitz Victory of France over Russia and Austria


Wars of conquest between the consulate and the empire. Date Place of battle Result 1805 Landing in England The army was transferred to Vienna 1805 Trafalgar Victory of the English fleet under the command of Admiral Nelson 1805 Austerlitz Victory of France over Russia and Austria 1806 Jena (Prussia) Victory of France over Prussia


Wars of conquest between the consulate and the empire. Date Place of battle Result 1805 Landing in England The army was transferred to Vienna 1805 Trafalgar Victory of the English fleet under the command of Admiral Nelson 1805 Austerlitz Victory of France over Russia and Austria 1806 Jena (Prussia) Victory of France over Prussia 1806 Signing of a treaty on the continental blockade of England with the defeated states

The end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century is the most important period in the history of France. The ruling groups replaced each other with rapid force and speed. France passes from Jacobin dictatorship to rule executive body- Directory, as a result of the coup of the 18th Brumaire, power fell into the hands of 3 consuls, one of whom was Napoleon Bonaparte. You will learn where the political, economic and foreign policy vectors of France's development will be directed in the future by studying this lesson.

Consulate and formation of the Napoleonic Empire

Background

Since 1789, revolutionary changes took place in France. In 1794, after the overthrow of the Jacobin dictatorship, the shaky regime of the Directory was established.

His features:
.financial crisis, inflation, rapid rise in prices;
.lack of compromise between various political forces in France, fierce political struggle and conspiracies;
The French were largely tired of the internal instability that followed the revolution and wanted strong power;
France achieved its main successes during this period in the military field: the growing popularity of the military against the backdrop of the Directory being unable to cope with the internal problems.

Political circles were increasingly thinking about eliminating the unpopular Directory and establishing a tougher political regime that, with the support of the army, could achieve order in the country.

Events

November 1799 - coup of the 18th Brumaire (about the coup). The popular general Napoleon Bonaparte overthrows the government and disperses the Legislative Assembly; A government of three consuls is established - Bonaparte and former members of the Directory who were preparing the coup: Abbot Sieyès and Roger Ducos.

December 1799 - adoption of the constitution, according to which Napoleon became the first consul with full power, relegating the allies to the background (Constitution of 1799).

1800 - creation of the Bank of France (still exists), stabilization of the financial situation in the country.

1801 - concordat (agreement) between France and the Catholic Church, normalization of relations damaged as a result of the revolution.

1802 - Napoleon declared himself consul for life.

1804 - adoption of the Civil Code, which influenced the civil law system throughout the world ().

Conclusion

In May 1804, Napoleon, in the presence of the Pope, was crowned Emperor Napoleon I. This ended the 12-year history of the First French Republic. Started new era in the history of France - the First Empire.

Parallels

The French themselves of the era of the Revolution and Napoleon liked to compare themselves with the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. The overthrow of the Bourbons was likened to the expulsion of the royal Tarquin dynasty in Ancient Rome. The struggle of political groups, accompanied by terror, was reminiscent of the period. Bonaparte was compared to Julius Caesar and Octavian Augustus: the Bonapartist regime put an end to internal strife, reconciled various social and political strata, and increased the economic stability and military power of France.

In this lesson we'll talk about the consulate and the creation Napoleonic Empire in France. Last year, in the 7th grade general history course, the issue of the French Revolution of 1789 was considered. Let us recall that the King of France Louis XVI was executed in 1793, and in the summer of the same year it was established Jacobin dictatorship (political regime in revolutionary France, existing from June 1793 to July 1794). After the collapse of the Jacobin dictatorship, a new body came to power in France, which was called Directory(executive authority of the French Republic under the Constitution of the French Republic, adopted National Convention in 1795). The era of the Directory in France, which falls on 1795-1799, was not a very successful time. This was a time when an economic crisis was raging in France. By 1799, the Directory had become unpopular in France. What was needed was a person or government body that would enjoy popular support. People wanted to see a strong ruler.

The young general became such a ruler (Fig. 1). Beginning in 1796, he waged active wars in Italy. He also actually forced Switzerland to join France. The French conquest of the Netherlands occurred at the same time. Napoleon's numerous victories and his warlike image aroused delight among a considerable part of French society. Napoleon's finest hour was to be his Egyptian campaign(Fig. 2). If this campaign had been successful, then the British, France's main opponents, would have had serious problems, because France's capture of Egypt opened the way to India for the French army, and India was the most important source of raw materials and resources. But Napoleon's Egyptian campaign ended unsuccessfully. In August 1798, in the Battle of Abukir the British practically destroyed the French fleet (Fig. 3). Attempts to gain a foothold in the eastern Mediterranean failed. However, Napoleon managed to rehabilitate himself. In 1798 and 1799 he undertook two campaigns, in Italy and Switzerland. The enemy of Napoleon and his subordinates in these campaigns was Russia, General Russian army at that time there was (Fig. 4). Despite Suvorov's merits, this campaign was unsuccessful for Russia. Napoleon presented himself to the French as the conqueror of the Russians and Suvorov himself, whose merits were known and honored throughout Europe after the Russian-Turkish War. Thus, by 1799, Napoleon's authority in France was enormous.

Rice. 1. Napoleon Bonaparte ()

Rice. 2. Napoleon's Egyptian campaign ()

Rice. 3. Abukir naval battle ()

Rice. 4. Alexander Vasilievich Suvorov ()

Members of the Directory decided to use this authority for their own purposes. They underestimated Napoleon and decided to use him as a puppet in their hands. In October 1799, Napoleon returned to Paris in triumph. Public opinion associated victories with him recent years. But a few days after his return, Napoleon carried out a coup d'etat. It went down in history as the coup of the 18th Brumaire(Fig. 5). The coup happened November 9, 1799. It was announced that the Jacobin conspiracy had been uncovered. The Council of Five Hundred was expelled from the meeting room in the Palace of Saint-Cloud. It was announced that all power in the country would pass into the hands of three individuals, who began to be called in the Roman manner consuls. These consuls were:

Sieyès, who actually brought Napoleon to power,

Roger-Ducos.

This era, which began in 1799 with the coup of the 18th Brumaire and ended in 1804, was called consulate era.

Rice. 5. Coup of the 18th Brumaire ()

The main task that had to be solved in France during the era of the consulate was the task of social unification of the country. In France there were many supporters of various ideas, movements, theories and doctrines. There were monarchists, republicans, and supporters of strong military power.

The new Constitution, adopted by the consuls in 1799, declared the right to property inviolable. As a result, those who previously feared for their lives and their wealth flocked to the country. All emigrants who had previously fled the country were allowed to re-settle in France. An exception was made only for monarchists. Napoleon did not need such rivals.

Napoleon also did a lot to normalize the financial situation in the country. This was primarily of interest to entrepreneurs. But ordinary townspeople were also interested in ensuring that the French monetary unit was stable. In 1800 Napoleon created Bank of France, which still exists today. IN 1803 was put into circulation silver franc(Fig. 6) - convertible (freely exchangeable for other monetary units) currency.

Rice. 6. Silver franc ()

Napoleon managed to solve the problem in his relationship with the Pope. France was and remained a Catholic country with a predominantly Catholic population. Relations with Italy and the pope were unstable. Rome negatively perceived the French Republic and the expulsion of nobles from the country. In 1801, Napoleon and the Pope signed concordat(an agreement between the Pope as the head of the Catholic Church and any state). In 1804, the Pope even came to Paris to conduct the coronation ceremony of Napoleon. However, the services of the pope were not required; Napoleon assumed the crown on his own, but the very presence of the pope at this ceremony was very important for Napoleon. Napoleon, however, believed that he had the right to dispose of church property. The Pope had a completely opposite opinion on this matter.

In 1802, Napoleon received the expected respite. Constant revolutionary wars exhausted the country. A break was needed in order to gather strength and prepare for new military campaigns. Between France and England in 1802 it was concluded Peace of Amiens. This was done in order to strengthen the French position in Italy. Immediately after the signing of the peace treaty, such Italian territories as Piedmont and the island of Elba were annexed to France.

In 1802, the British did not take Napoleon very seriously. They believed that the general would not be able to cope with the economic situation in the country. But they miscalculated. Already in May 1803, Napoleon created a large military camp on the English Channel coast, known as (Fig. 7). This camp is where troops gather for the upcoming invasion of Great Britain.

Rice. 7. Boulogne camp ()

The problem remained in getting these numerous troops across the English Channel (the strait separating England and France, Fig. 8). After the defeat of the French fleet at the Battle of Aboukir, England controlled all movements across the seas, especially off its shores. France did not have a serious fleet at that time. He could not compete with England in numbers and maneuverability. English cartoonists, ridiculing Napoleon's army, depicted the crossing of French troops across the English Channel in landing basins.

Rice. 8. The English Channel separating England and France ()

In March 1804 Napoleon introduced in France Civil Code(Fig. 9). This document was prepared by a special commission chaired by Napoleon himself. It enshrined such important provisions as freedom of private property, freedom of enterprise and norms family law. According to the Civil Code it was enshrined new type family relations. Woman before early XIX centuries in Europe was not considered as a subject of law. It was believed that she should be completely subordinate to her husband or father. Napoleonic Civil Code gave women the right to divorce for the first time in Europe. However, women did not retain this right for very long. It was taken away in 1816 and restored only in 1884. The Civil Code failed to equalize the rights of women with men. Women did not have the right to vote.

Rice. 9. Napoleon's Civil Code ()

Napoleon himself understood the meaning of his Civil Code. He wrote that his military victories may mean nothing, Waterloo alone crossed them all out, and what will live on for centuries is the Civil Code. Following the model of the Civil Code, a few years later the Commercial Code appeared in France, and a little later the Criminal Code.

In 1802, Napoleon achieved an extension of his powers as consul. He received lifelong powers, but this was not enough for the general. On May 18, 1804, he was declared French Emperor under the name NapoleonI. In December, his coronation ceremony took place in Paris (Fig. 10). As noted above, Napoleon himself placed the crown on his head. Thus, France, which was a republic for 12 years, returned to the monarchy again. The period of the first republic in France ended. The period of the first empire began.

Rice. 10. Coronation of Napoleon ()

Bibliography

  1. Jomini. Political and military life Napoleon. A book dedicated to Napoleon's military campaigns until 1812
  2. Manfred A.Z. Napoleon Bonaparte. - M.: Mysl, 1989.
  3. Noskov V.V., Andreevskaya T.P. General history. 8th grade. - M., 2013.
  4. Tarle E.V. "Napoleon". - 1994.
  5. Chandler D. Napoleon's military campaigns. - M., 1997.
  6. Yudovskaya A.Ya. General history. Modern History, 1800-1900, 8th grade. - M., 2012.
  1. Veter-stranstvii.ru ().
  2. Jurkom74.ru ().
  3. Treeland.ru ().
  4. Be5.biz().

Homework

  1. Tell us about Napoleon's first military campaigns. Which of them were successful and which were not?
  2. When did the coup of the 18th Brumaire take place and what regime was established as a result?
  3. What was the reason for the negative relationship between Napoleon and the Catholic Church (Pope)?
  4. When was the Civil Code created? What did Napoleon see as its significance for French society?

Lesson topic: “The Consulate and the formation of the Napoleonic Empire.”

Lesson objectives:

Educational: characterize the development of France in the period from 1799 to 1810; find out the reasons for the transition from republic to empire in France; show the bourgeois character of Napoleonic reforms. Their significance for the further modernization of France; show the aggressive nature of Napoleon's warriors, the territorial changes that occurred in Europe.

Developmental: encouraging students to independently draw conclusions, justifying them with facts, and express judgments about cause and effect relationships historical events and phenomena; formation of positive motivation for learning.

Educational: continue to develop a respectful attitude towards world culture.

During the classes.

I. Organizing time.

II. Survey homework:

You were assigned § 9-10 Liberals, Conservatives and Socialists.

Questions for oral questioning:

1. Describe the main views of liberals on the development of society, the role of the state and human rights.

2. List the basic principles of conservatism. Think about the differences in views between liberals and conservatives on the role of the state in society and human rights.

3. Tell us about the basic principles of Marxist teaching.

Independent work(test):

1. Social teaching Western Europe XIX century, which was based on the human right to life and freedom:

a) socialism b) liberalism c) anarchism

2. The doctrine of class struggle, the communist revolution formed the basis

a) anarchism b) Marxism c) liberalism

3. One of the representatives of critical socialism:

a) Henri Saint-Simon b) Friedrich Engels c) Pierre Proudhon

4. Check all the correct statements.

Conservatives

a) recognized the state’s right to regulate the economy

b) advocated social equality of all people

c) advocated the preservation of the old order and traditional values

d) advocated the abolition of private property

5. Was NOT a representative of anarchism

a) Charles Fourier b) Pierre Proudhon c) Mikhail Bakunin

6. Explain the statement: “Everything that is not prohibited by law is permitted.”

III. Updating students' basic knowledge.

Teacher's story: Guys, last year you started studying the Great French revolution. Let me remind you that as a result of it, the monarchy was overthrown, the French Emperor Louis XVI was executed, and power passed into the hands of the people's representative body.

On Brumaire 19 (November), 1799, the Council of Five Hundred was dispersed, and General Bonaparte became the unlimited ruler of France for 15 years. Napoleon Bonaparte established a strict authoritarian regime, his power was enormous. Let's see what his power was aimed at. What did Napoleon Bonaparte do for France and each Frenchman individually? What did he do for Europe?

Lesson plan:

3. "Revolutionary on the throne."

IV. Studying a new topic.

1. From revolutionary France to bourgeois France.

- Teacher's story. Since 1789, there have been so many coups in France that the events of 18-19 Brumaire did not bother the sans-culottes. Most citizens were not sympathetic to the idea of ​​returning the monarchy. General Bonaparte, a man with a republican background, was quietly received as head of state. Having established a military dictatorship, Bonaparte set about restoring the economy, government controlled and the legal system. He was preparing to rule the country of the bourgeoisie, peasants and property owners.

- Working with a document.

- Student's message about Napoleon Bonaparte.

-Teacher's story. The new constitution adopted in December 1799 proclaimed as its principles “calmness, order, legality.” The Senate, the highest legislative chamber, entrusted executive power to three consuls for 10 years. The First Consul was given the greatest rights. He had the right to create laws, declare war and make peace, and appoint ministers and officials. He had more power than Louis XVI under the constitution of 1791. The Second and Third Consuls had only an advisory vote. Legislative power was sharply limited. The Constitution restored universal suffrage. However local government destroyed, government officials - prefects - were sent to the departments to manage them. In cities, mayors were appointed instead of elected communes.

A regime of personal power was established in the country. The French were tired of the revolution, and the regime of personal power was approved in a plebiscite (popular poll).

This is how Napoleon Bonaparte, the “son of the revolution,” became the main political figure in France. The country has embarked on the path of civil peace.

The period from 1799 to 1804, when power was concentrated in the hands of the consuls, is called by historians the consulate.

Notebook entry:

The consulate is a period in French history from 1799 to 1804 when power was concentrated in the hands of the consuls.

2. “Freedom, equality and property!”

- Working with the textbook.

Group 1 reads the paragraph “Freedom, equality and property!” on pp. 93-94 of the textbook.

Group 2 reads the paragraph “A society without religion is like a ship without a compass” on pp. 94-95.

Exercise: Each group highlights the main reforms, measures to strengthen the state and pacify the people, carried out in France by Napoleon during his consulate.

3. "Revolutionary on the throne."

- Teacher's story. The Republic was coming to its end. Royalist conspiracies aimed at overthrowing the consulate regime and restoring the Bourbon monarchy frightened the “new rich”, who were afraid of losing the property acquired during the revolution. They demanded "that Napoleon Bonaparte, now First Consul, be proclaimed Emperor and as such be entrusted with the government of the French Republic."

The proposal was also supported by the peasants who bought the lands of the emigrants. One of the representatives of the upper bourgeoisie expressed the general opinion of these people, declaring: “Only by establishing the hereditary power of the new dynasty can we destroy in the bud the chimerical hopes of the old dynasty, giving the new order of things a lasting character.” And the First Consul himself had long lived the dream of an empire. Military victories helped pave the way to the throne.

The European powers that fought against France were tired of the war. Denmark was the first to conclude a truce with France in 1801, then its allies followed this example. Having lost allies, Great Britain signed a peace treaty with France in Amiens in March 1802, ending a ten-year war. Under this treaty, Great Britain lifted the naval blockade of France, but did not recognize its new borders. The conclusion of peace caused enormous enthusiasm among the French and a surge of adoration for Bonaparte. For a whole year he enjoyed such nationwide popularity that others had never dreamed of. French politicians. This made it easier for Napoleon to establish a monarchy.

Notebook entry: May 18, 1804 – The Senate proclaimed Napoleon “Emperor of the French”

4. Wars of conquest between the consulate and the empire.

Exercise. Guys, now you will independently read the paragraph “Wars of Conquest of the Consulate and Empire” pp. 96-98 and fill out the table.

Main battles Napoleonic wars

Name of the battle or campaign

Date of battle

5. “True glory” of Napoleon.

- Working with a document.“French Civil Code” (extracts) page 100 of the textbook.

V. Consolidation of what has been learned in the lesson.

Questions for the class:

1. What is a consulate?

2. What reforms of Napoleon did you learn about?

VI. Lesson summary.

Key words of the summary: consulate, First Consul, formation of the empire of Napoleon I, Emperor of the French, act of coronation, King of Italy, Battle of Austerlitz, continental blockade, great empire.

Consulate

The new constitution adopted in December 1799 proclaimed as its principles “calmness, order, legality.” The Senate, the highest legislative chamber, entrusted executive power to three consuls for 10 years. The First Consul was given the greatest rights. He had the right to create laws, declare war and make peace, and appoint ministers and officials. He had more power than Louis XVI under the 1791 constitution.

empire of Napoleon Bonaparte monarchy of Louis XVI
Power was inherited
All executive power was in the hands of the monarch
The monarch had the right to make laws The monarch had the right to make laws, but he could not overrule the decisions of previous monarchs (who formally applied to the laws of individual territories)
The organizational body of dative power formally existed, but its powers were insignificant There was no legislative body

The Second and Third Consuls had only an advisory vote. Legislative power was sharply limited. The Constitution restored universal suffrage. However, local self-government was destroyed; government officials - prefects - were sent to manage departments. In cities, mayors were appointed instead of elected communes. A regime of personal power was established in the country.

This is how Napoleon Bonaparte, the “son of the revolution,” became the main political figure in France. The country has embarked on the path of civil peace. The period from 1799 to 1804, when power was concentrated in the hands of the consuls, historians call consulate.

As a result of the plebiscite in August 1802, Napoleon became consul for life, and the new constitution of the X year of the Republic gave him the right to appoint a successor. This was a step towards monarchy.

Having become First Consul, Bonaparte set himself the task of taking revenge for the failures of 1799. In 1800 he went to second Italian campaign . Having passed through the Alps and reached the rear of the Austrians, the French won a victory in June 14, 1800. Battle of Marengo. Austria withdrew from the war and recognized France's new eastern border along the Rhine.

The European powers that fought against France were tired of the war. Denmark was the first to conclude a truce with France in 1801, then its allies followed this example. Having lost allies, Great Britain signed a peace treaty with France in Amiens in March 1802, ending a ten-year war. Under this treaty, Great Britain lifted the naval blockade of France, but did not recognize its new borders.

Royalist conspiracies aimed at overthrowing the consulate regime and restoring the Bourbon monarchy frightened the “new rich”, who were afraid of losing the property acquired during the revolution. They demanded "that Napoleon Bonaparte, now First Consul, be proclaimed Emperor and as such be entrusted with the government of the French Republic."

Reasons for creating an empire:

  1. France needed reconciliation between supporters and opponents of the revolution;
  2. Bonaparte used this as one of the means of rehabilitating his regime in the eyes of Catholics;
  3. Bonaparte used this as a means of increasing his authority in the international arena (for example, thanks to this title, peace negotiations between the emperors Napoleon I and Alexander I were held on equal terms);
  4. it is quite possible that this was the fulfillment of the childhood dream of Napoleon, who was brought up in a monarchical country and always strived for greatness;
  5. Bonaparte had full executive power and loyalty to the army at his disposal; no one had a chance to challenge his decisions.

18 May 1804 The Senate proclaimed Napoleon "Emperor of the French", Napoleon I, and on December 2 of the same year in the cathedral Notre Dame of Paris a solemn ceremony took place act of coronation. Pope Pius VII was forced to come to Paris and lead the coronation ceremony. A golden crown was specially made for this occasion. The new constitution of 1804 established a hereditary monarchy.

In May 1805 in Milan, in the Duomo, Napoleon was crowned as king of italy. For some time, France was still called a republic, but then the word “empire” replaced the previous name. This is how this one came about bourgeois monarchy. The legislative power was completely subordinated to the executive, concentrated in the hands of the emperor.

The emperor glorified himself as a legislator. In March 1804, the famous Civil Code, or Napoleonic Code, was published, enshrining the “principles of 1789.” The code proclaimed the equality of citizens before the law, the inviolability of personality and property, freedom of conscience, the secular nature of the state, freedom of labor, etc. The old order in France was ended forever. The Code subsequently spread throughout all European countries.

Continental blockade of England

After the proclamation of the empire, he began to fulfill his long-standing plan - send troops to England and defeat your worst enemy. In August 1805, a coalition was created against France between England, Russia, Austria, Naples and Sweden. Military operations at sea brought victory to Great Britain. However, military operations on land brought victory to France. November 14, 1805 The French army entered Vienna. Napoleon settled in the palace of the Austrian emperor.

December 2, 1805 120 km from Vienna there was a bloody Battle of Austerlitz, where Napoleon won a decisive victory over the Austrian and Russian armies. The significance of this battle was enormous: Alexander I urgently withdrew his troops, and the Austrian emperor personally arrived at Napoleon’s headquarters to ask for peace - his army was defeated and could not continue hostilities. Austria had no choice but to capitulate and recognize France's freedom of action in the German and Italian states.

In 1806, European monarchies created a new anti-French coalition. Now, instead of Austria, Prussia entered it. In the same year, the Prussian army was defeated in the bloody battles of Jena and Auerstadt. At the end of October, Napoleon triumphantly entered Berlin. In this city November 21, 1806 the emperor signed decree on the continental blockade, which prohibited all states dependent on France from trading with Great Britain. This time he wanted to expel English goods not only from France, but also from all of Europe, to deprive Great Britain of the European sales market, and therefore of the means to continue military operations.

The victory of the French army at Friedland on June 14, 1807 was decisive for the outcome of hostilities. In July 1807, Napoleon made peace with Russia. Two emperors - Napoleon and Alexander I - met in Tilsit. They signed peace and alliance treaties between France and Russia. Under the terms of the treaty, Russia joined the continental blockade. Here peace was concluded with Prussia, on which Napoleon imposed an indemnity and took away part of the territory, and from its Polish possessions he created the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, dependent on France. In addition, Prussia also had to join the continental blockade.

In 1807, the French army invaded Portugal, and in 1808 - Spain with the same goal - to force these states to join the continental blockade. In June of the same year, Napoleon placed his older brother Joseph on the Spanish throne. But the Spaniards did not accept the occupation.

By 1810, Napoleon I had achieved unprecedented power and glory. Around the borders of France arose chain puppet states , ruled by the emperor's relatives and monarchs whom he himself placed on the throne. Many “daughter republics” created under the Directory were annexed to France. This is how the “Great Empire” was created. All states dependent on France had to join the continental blockade.

Internal politics of the consulate and the empire of Napoleon I

Bonaparte stimulated the development of large business, taking a whole range of measures for this, including strengthening the franc. At the same time, he launched large-scale state construction, which has been used since ancient times to give work to the poor. The creation of new jobs also stimulated the development of business for the big bourgeoisie. Bonaparte also decided to make peace with moderate opponents of the revolution. He declared an amnesty for emigrants and also tried to improve relations with the Catholic Church. The latter included a whole range of measures. The first consul went to negotiations with the Pope. Later, the Pope presided over the emperor's coronation ceremony.

After a series of military victories by France, the Roman high priest became under the control of Paris, while he was glorified in every possible way and supported in endeavors that did not diverge from the political course of the empire. The separation of church and state in France was abolished, the positions of the Catholic hierarchs were formally restored, but, for example, Napoleon personally appointed bishops. Taking advantage of his right to make laws independently, Napoleon introduced a number of codes with new norms of social relations in France and in the territories under its control.

During the period of consulate and empire, France achieved significant successes in internal and foreign policy. Based on the new laws, the economic, financial and police systems were radically restructured, an agreement was concluded with the papal throne restoring the activities of the church in France, and reforms were carried out in the field of culture and education. Bonaparte, having proclaimed himself a “national”, people’s ruler, managed to eliminate many conflicts in society. As a result of military victories during these years, France became the strongest state on the continent.

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The big bourgeoisie, which came to power in France during the Directory, soon found itself between two opposing socio-political forces. On the one hand, urban workers, suffering from unemployment and a constant deterioration in living standards, intensified their struggle against the Thermidorian regime. On the other hand, the reaction of the nobility intensified - royalist conspiracies were brewing, setting as their task the restoration of the monarchy. This forced the Thermidorians to fight on two fronts. Speaking against the people, the bourgeoisie sought support from the right; fear of the noble reaction forced her to enter into temporary agreements with the left wing of the Democrats. The “swing policy,” as its contemporaries called it, testified to the internal fragility of the Thermidorian republic.

The ruling circles saw their political salvation in the creation of a military dictatorship. Extremely centralized state, headed by a “strong personality,” could protect the interests of large entrepreneurs by force of arms from danger on the right and left. Stabilization was also needed by a significant part of the peasantry, who sought to preserve the land acquired during the revolution.

The greatest support was received by General Napoleon Bonaparte, who became extremely popular thanks to the victories won by French troops under his command (especially in Italy and Egypt).

In 1799 (November 9-10, or 18-19 Brumaire of the VIII year according to the republican calendar), Bonaparte, with the help of troops, dispersed the Legislative Corps and abolished the Directory. The government of the country was placed in the hands of three consuls. Real power was concentrated in the first consul; Bonaparte took his post.

Democratic forces, largely weakened in previous years, were unable to provide adequate resistance to the new dictatorship. The exchange responded to the coup by increasing the price of securities. The new regime was supported by the peasantry, who were promised and actually guaranteed protection of their land ownership.

Napoleon's domestic policy consisted of strengthening his personal power as a guarantee of preserving the results of the revolution: civil rights, land ownership rights of peasants, as well as those who bought national property during the revolution, that is, confiscated lands of emigrants and churches. The Civil Code (1804), which went down in history as the Napoleonic Code, was supposed to ensure all these conquests. Napoleon carried out an administrative reform, establishing the institution of prefects of departments and sub-prefects of districts accountable to the government (1800). Mayors were appointed to cities and villages. The state French Bank was established to store gold reserves and issue paper money (1800), and the tax collection system was neutralized. Napoleon's administrative and legal innovations laid the foundation for the modern state, many of which are still in effect today. It was then that the system of secondary schools - lyceums and higher education institutions - was created. educational establishments-- Normal and Polytechnical schools, which are still the most prestigious in France. Well aware of the importance of influencing public opinion, Napoleon closed 160 of the 173 Parisian newspapers and placed the rest under government control. A powerful police force and an extensive secret service were created. Napoleon concluded a concordat with the Pope (1801). Rome recognized the new French government, and Catholicism was declared the religion of the majority of the French. At the same time, freedom of religion was preserved. The appointment of bishops and the activities of the church were made dependent on the government.

Economic policy consisted of ensuring the primacy of the French industrial and financial bourgeoisie in the European market.

Napoleon had phenomenal memory and efficiency, sharp mind, military and state genius, gift of diplomat, artist, charm, which allowed him to easily win over people. This man, in his unchanging gray frock coat and cocked hat, took a strong place in history, giving his name to an entire era. Napoleon's empire turned out to be fragile. However, the tragic fate of the emperor deeply shocked his contemporaries, including artists, musicians, poets, and provided abundant food for romanticism, which blossomed in European culture in subsequent decades. Napoleon's battles were included in military textbooks. “Napoleonic law” underlies the civil norms of Western democracies. The restored Bourbon monarchy was unable to destroy the results of the Revolution secured by Napoleon.