STATE AND BYZANTINE LAW

In 395, the Roman Empire was divided into the Western (capital - Rome) and Eastern (capital - Constantinople). The first empire ceased to exist in 476 under the blows of the Germanic tribes. The Eastern Empire, or Byzantium, existed until 1453. Byzantium received its name from the ancient Greek colony of Megara, a small town of Byzantium, on the site of which Emperor Constantine
in 324-330 he founded the new capital of the Roman Empire - Constantinople. The Byzantines themselves called themselves “Romans”, and the empire – “Romanian”, therefore for a long time the capital was called “New Rome”.

Byzantium was in many ways a continuation of the Roman Empire, preserving its political and state traditions. At the same time, Constantinople and Rome became two centers of political life - the “Latin” West and the “Greek” East.

The stability of Byzantium had its reasons, hidden
in the features of socio-economic and historical development. Firstly, the Byzantine state included economically developed regions: Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, the Balkan Peninsula (the territory of the empire exceeded 750,000 sq. km
with a population of 50-65 million people), who conducted brisk trade
with India, China, Iran, Arabia and North Africa. The decline of an economy based on slave labor was not felt as strongly here as in Western Rome, since the population was
in a free or semi-free state. Agriculture was not built on forced labor in the form of large slave-owning latifundia, but on small peasant farming (communal peasantry). Therefore, small farms responded more quickly to the changing market conditions and more quickly, compared to large farms, restructured their activities. And in the craft here, the main role was played by free workers. For these reasons, the eastern provinces suffered less than the western ones from the economic crisis of the 3rd century.

Secondly, Byzantium, having large material resources, had a strong army, navy and a strong, ramified state apparatus, which made it possible to restrain the raids of the barbarians. There was a strong imperial power with a flexible administrative apparatus.

Thirdly, Byzantium was built on the basis of a new Christian religion, which, in comparison with the pagan Roman one, had a progressive meaning.

The Byzantine Empire reached its greatest power
during the reign of Emperor Justinian I (527-565), who carried out extensive conquests, and again the Mediterranean Sea became an inland sea, this time of Byzantium. After the death of the monarch, the state entered into a long crisis. The countries conquered by Justinian were quickly lost. In the VI century. clashes with the Slavs begin,
and in the 7th century. - with the Arabs, who at the beginning of the 8th century. captured North Africa from Byzantium.

At the beginning of the same century, Byzantium began to emerge from the crisis with difficulty. In 717, Leo III, nicknamed the Isaurian, came to power and founded the Isaurian dynasty (717-802). He carried out a number of reforms. To find funds for their implementation, as well as for the maintenance of the army and administration, he decided to liquidate monastic land ownership. This was expressed in the fight against icons, because the church was accused of paganism - worship of icons. The authorities used iconoclasm to strengthen their political and economic positions, to subjugate the church and its wealth. Laws are issued against the veneration of icons, considering it as idolatry. The fight against icons made it possible to appropriate church treasures - utensils, icon frames, shrines containing the relics of saints. 100 monastic estates were also confiscated, the lands of which were distributed to peasants, as well as in the form of rewards to soldiers for their service.

These actions strengthened the internal and external position of Byzantium, which again annexed Greece, Macedonia, Crete, Southern Italy and Sicily.

In the second half of the 9th century, and especially in the 10th century, Byzantium achieved a new rise, as the powerful Arab Caliphate gradually disintegrated into a number of independent feudal states and Byzantium conquered Syria and numerous islands in the Mediterranean Sea from the Arabs, and at the beginning of the 11th century . annexes Bulgaria.
At that time, Byzantium was ruled by the Macedonian dynasty (867-1056), under which the foundations of a socially centralized early feudal monarchy took shape. Under her, Kievan Rus adopted Christianity from the Greeks in 988.

Under the next dynasty, Comneni (1057-1059, 1081-1185),
In Byzantium, feudalization intensifies and the process of enslavement of peasants is completed. Under her, the feudal institution was strengthened penetration("care"). Feudalization leads to the gradual disintegration of the state, and small independent principalities appear in Asia Minor. The foreign policy situation was also becoming more complicated: the Normans were advancing from the west, the Pechenegs from the north, and the Seljuks from the east. The first to save Byzantium from the Seljuk Turks crusade. Byzantium managed to return part of its possessions. However, soon Byzantium and the crusaders began to fight among themselves. Constantinople was taken by the crusaders in 1204. Byzantium broke up into a number of states, loosely connected with each other.

With the coming to power of the Palaiologan dynasty (1261-1453), Byzantium managed to strengthen itself, but its territory decreased noticeably. Soon a new threat loomed over the state from the Ottoman Turks, who extended their power over Asia Minor, bringing it to the shores of the Sea of ​​Marmara. In the fight against the Ottomans, the emperors began to hire foreign troops, who often turned their weapons against their employers. Byzantium was exhausted in the struggle, aggravated by peasant and urban uprisings. The state apparatus was in decline, which leads to the decentralization of power and its weakening. The Byzantine emperors decide to turn to the Catholic West for help. In 1439, the Union of Florence was signed, according to which the eastern Orthodox Church submitted to the Pope. However, Byzantium never received real help from the West.
Upon the return of the Greeks to their homeland, the union was rejected by the majority of the people and the clergy.

In 1444, the crusaders suffered a severe defeat from the Ottoman Turks, who dealt the final blow to Byzantium. Emperor John VIII was forced to seek mercy from Sultan Murad II. In 1148, the Byzantine emperor dies. The last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos, entered into a fight with the new Sultan Mehmed II Fatih (the Conqueror). On May 29, 1453, under the attacks of Turkish troops, Constantinople was taken, and with its fall, the Byzantine Empire actually ceased to exist. Türkiye is turning into one
of the powerful powers of the medieval world, and Constantinople becomes the capital Ottoman Empire– Istanbul (from “Islambol” - “abundance of Islam”).

One of the greatest state entities antiquity, fell into decay in the first centuries of our era. Numerous tribes standing at the lowest levels of civilization destroyed much of the heritage of the ancient world. But the Eternal City was not destined to perish: it was reborn on the banks of the Bosphorus and for many years amazed contemporaries with its splendor.

Second Rome

The history of the emergence of Byzantium dates back to the middle of the 3rd century, when Flavius ​​Valerius Aurelius Constantine, Constantine I (the Great), became Roman emperor. In those days, the Roman state was torn apart by internal strife and besieged by external enemies. The condition of the eastern provinces was more prosperous, and Constantine decided to move the capital to one of them. In 324, the construction of Constantinople began on the banks of the Bosphorus, and already in 330 it was declared New Rome.

This is how Byzantium began its existence, whose history goes back eleven centuries.

Of course, there was no talk of any stable state borders in those days. Throughout its long life, the power of Constantinople either weakened or regained power.

Justinian and Theodora

In many ways, the state of affairs in the country depended on the personal qualities of its ruler, which is generally typical for states with an absolute monarchy, to which Byzantium belonged. The history of its formation is inextricably linked with the name of Emperor Justinian I (527-565) and his wife, Empress Theodora - a very extraordinary and, apparently, extremely gifted woman.

By the beginning of the 5th century, the empire had become a small Mediterranean state, and the new emperor was obsessed with the idea of ​​​​reviving its former glory: he conquered vast territories in the West and achieved relative peace with Persia in the East.

History is inextricably linked with the era of Justinian's reign. It is thanks to his care that such monuments exist today ancient architecture, like the mosque in Istanbul or the church of San Vitale in Ravenna. Historians consider one of the emperor's most notable achievements to be the codification of Roman law, which became the basis of the legal system of many European states.

Medieval mores

Construction and endless wars required huge expenses. The emperor endlessly raised taxes. Discontent grew in society. In January 532, during the appearance of the emperor at the Hippodrome (a kind of analogue of the Colosseum, which accommodated 100 thousand people), riots began that grew into a large-scale riot. The uprising was suppressed with unheard-of cruelty: the rebels were convinced to gather in the Hippodrome, as if for negotiations, after which they locked the gates and killed every single one.

Procopius of Caesarea reports the death of 30 thousand people. It is noteworthy that his wife Theodora retained the emperor’s crown; it was she who convinced Justinian, who was ready to flee, to continue the fight, saying that she preferred death to flight: “royal power is a beautiful shroud.”

In 565, the empire included parts of Syria, the Balkans, Italy, Greece, Palestine, Asia Minor and the northern coast of Africa. But endless wars had an unfavorable effect on the state of the country. After the death of Justinian, the borders began to shrink again.

"Macedonian Renaissance"

In 867, Basil I, the founder of the Macedonian dynasty, which lasted until 1054, came to power. Historians call this era the “Macedonian Renaissance” and consider it the maximum flowering of the world medieval state, which Byzantium was at that time.

The history of the successful cultural and religious expansion of the Eastern Roman Empire is well known to all states of Eastern Europe: one of the most characteristic features foreign policy Constantinople was missionary. It was thanks to the influence of Byzantium that the branch of Christianity spread to the East, which after 1054 became Orthodoxy.

European Capital of Culture

The art of the Eastern Roman Empire was closely connected with religion. Unfortunately, for several centuries, political and religious elites could not agree on whether the worship of sacred images was idolatry (the movement was called iconoclasm). In the process, a huge number of statues, frescoes and mosaics were destroyed.

History is extremely indebted to the empire; throughout its existence, it was a kind of guardian of ancient culture and contributed to the spread of ancient Greek literature in Italy. Some historians are convinced that it was largely thanks to the existence of New Rome that the Renaissance became possible.

During the reign of the Macedonian dynasty Byzantine Empire managed to neutralize the two main enemies of the state: the Arabs in the east and the Bulgarians in the north. The story of the victory over the latter is quite impressive. As a result of a surprise attack on the enemy, Emperor Vasily II managed to capture 14 thousand prisoners. He ordered them to be blinded, leaving only one eye for every hundredth, after which he sent the crippled people home. Seeing his blind army, the Bulgarian Tsar Samuel suffered a blow from which he never recovered. Medieval morals were indeed very harsh.

After the death of Basil II, the last representative of the Macedonian dynasty, the story of the fall of Byzantium began.

Rehearsal for the end

In 1204, Constantinople surrendered for the first time under the onslaught of the enemy: enraged by the unsuccessful campaign in the “promised land,” the crusaders burst into the city, announced the creation of the Latin Empire and divided the Byzantine lands between the French barons.

The new formation did not last long: on July 51, 1261, Constantinople was occupied without a fight by Michael VIII Palaiologos, who announced the revival of the Eastern Roman Empire. The dynasty he founded ruled Byzantium until its fall, but it was a rather miserable reign. In the end, the emperors lived on handouts from Genoese and Venetian merchants, and naturally plundered church and private property.

Fall of Constantinople

By the beginning, only Constantinople, Thessaloniki and small scattered enclaves in southern Greece remained from the former territories. Desperate attempts by the last emperor of Byzantium, Manuel II, to gain military support were unsuccessful. On May 29, Constantinople was conquered for the second and last time.

The Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II renamed the city Istanbul, and the main Christian temple of the city, St. Sofia, turned into a mosque. With the disappearance of the capital, Byzantium also disappeared: the history of the most powerful state of the Middle Ages ceased forever.

Byzantium, Constantinople and New Rome

It is a very curious fact that the name “Byzantine Empire” appeared after its collapse: it was first found in the study of Jerome Wolf in 1557. The reason was the name of the city of Byzantium, on the site of which Constantinople was built. The inhabitants themselves called it nothing less than the Roman Empire, and themselves - Romans (Romeans).

The cultural influence of Byzantium on the countries of Eastern Europe is difficult to overestimate. However, the first Russian scientist who began to study this medieval state was Yu. A. Kulakovsky. “The History of Byzantium” in three volumes was published only at the beginning of the twentieth century and covered events from 359 to 717. In the last few years of his life, the scientist was preparing the fourth volume of his work for publication, but after his death in 1919, the manuscript could not be found.

One of the largest empires in history, Byzantium had enormous influence on sea and land, in trade and industrial development, in religion and culture.

The fall of the Byzantine Empire led to change political map Europe and Asia, became the impetus for the search for new trade routes, which led to geographical discoveries. How long did Byzantium last, and what caused its collapse?

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The emergence of the Byzantine Empire

The reason for the emergence of Byzantium was the collapse of the Great Roman Empire, which ended with the division into Western and Eastern. The last ruler of the Roman Empire was Theodosius I. During his reign, Christianity became a single religion throughout the empire. Before his death, the emperor carried out division into Western and Eastern Empires, each of which he gave to his sons Honorius and Arcadius.

The Western Empire was able to survive for less than a century and fell under the onslaught of barbarians in the second half of the 5th century.

Rome lost its greatness for many hundreds of years. The eastern part, centered in Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey), became a powerful successor, receiving the name of the Byzantine Empire.

Date of foundation of Constantinople falls on the year 330, when Emperor Constantine moved the capital to the place where the Greek colony of Byzantium was located.

Later, Constantinople became the capital of the Eastern Empire and the richest city of the Middle Ages. The Byzantine Empire lasted for more than 1000 years(395–1453), while the Roman Empire itself lasted 500 years.

Attention! Historians began to call the resulting empire Byzantium after its collapse in the 15th century.

The power of the Byzantine Empire was based on trade and craft production. Cities grew and developed, providing the production of all necessary goods. The sea trade route was the safest, because wars did not stop on land. Trade between East and West carried out through Byzantium, thanks to which its ports reached their greatest prosperity, which occurred in the 5th–8th centuries.

The multinational population brought its own cultural diversity, but the ancient heritage was taken as the basis, and Greek language became the main one. The majority of the population was Greek, which is why the name “Greek Empire” appeared in the west. Considering yourself heirs of the Romans, the Greeks began to call themselves “Romans,” which means Romans in Greek, and their empire Romania.

Rise of Byzantium

The period of greatest power of the empire occurred during the reign of Justinian in the middle of the 6th century. The empire's possessions reached their maximum limits in its history, which was achieved through military campaigns. The territory of Byzantium grew after the annexation of southern Spain and Italy, countries North Africa.

The empire was approved Roman law and the norms of the Christian religion. The document was called the “Code of Laws”, becoming the basis for the laws of European powers.

During the reign of Justinian, the most majestic Hagia Sophia in the world was built with splendor of frescoes and mosaic vault. Justinian's monumental imperial palace overlooked the Sea of ​​Marmara.

The absence of barbarian raids contributed to the cultural development and growth of the power of the Byzantine Empire. Greco-Roman cities continued to exist with palaces, snow-white columns and statues. Crafts, science, and trade flourished there. Was borrowed experience of Roman urban planning, running water and thermal baths (baths) were working.

Important! State symbols during the Byzantine Empire were absent or only developing.

The Palaiologan dynasty, which ruled for the last two centuries, had a purple imperial flag of Byzantium. In its center was a double-headed golden eagle. The emblem meant the division of the Roman Empire into two parts, which is why the eagle appeared two heads instead of the usual one like the Roman eagle. According to another version, double-headedness was interpreted as a union of secular and spiritual power.

Empire at the end of its existence

By the end of the 14th century, the existence of the Byzantine Empire was under threat posed by the Ottoman state. Diplomacy was used for salvation, negotiations were held in the West to unite churches in exchange for military aid from Rome. A preliminary agreement was reached back in 1430, but there were still controversial issues.

After the signing of the union in 1439, the Byzantine Church recognized the competence of the Catholic Church in controversial issues. But the document was not supported by the episcopate of Byzantium, headed by Bishop Mark Eugenik, which caused a split into the Orthodox and Uniate diocese, which began to coexist in parallel, which can be observed even today.

The church schism had a great influence on the history of culture. Metropolitans, supporters of Uniatism, became a bridge for the transmission of ancient and Byzantine culture to the West. Greek authors began to be translated into Latin, and emigrant intellectuals from Greece were given special patronage in the new place. Vissarion of Nicaea, who became a cardinal and Latin Patriarch of Constantinople, gave the Venetian Republic his entire personal library, numbering over 700 manuscripts. It was considered the largest private collection in Europe and served as the basis for the Library of St. Mark.

By the end of its existence, the Byzantine Empire had already lost most of its lands and former power. The territory of Byzantium was limited to the outskirts of the capital, to which the power of the last emperor Constantine XI extended.

Despite the fact that the map of the empire was gradually shrinking, Constantinople until the last hour perceived as a powerful symbol.

The emperor looked for allies among his neighbors, but only Rome and Venice offered little real help. The Ottoman Empire controlled almost all of Anatolia and Balkan Peninsula, tirelessly expanding its borders in the east and west. The Ottomans had already attacked the Byzantine Empire several times, each time conquering new cities.

Strengthening the influence of the Turks

The Ottoman state, created in 1299 from the fragments of the Seljuk Sultanate and Anatolia, received its name from the name of the first Sultan Osman. Throughout the 14th century, it increased its power on the borders of Byzantium, in Asia Minor and the Balkans. Constantinople received a small respite at the turn of the 14th and 15th centuries, when confrontation with Tamerlane. After another Turkish victory, a real threat loomed over the city.

Mehmed II called the capture of Constantinople by the Turks the goal of his life, for which he carefully prepared. A 150,000-strong army armed with artillery was prepared for the offensive. The Sultan took into account the shortcomings of past companies when he was deprived of his fleet. Therefore, a fleet was built for several years. The presence of warships and an army of 100,000 allowed the Turks to become masters in the Sea of ​​Marmara.

It was ready for a military campaign 85 military and 350 transport ships. The military power of Constantinople consisted of 5 thousand local residents and 2 thousand Western mercenaries, supported by only 25 ships. It was armed with several cannons and an impressive supply of spears and arrows, which was extremely insufficient for defense.

The powerful fortress of Constantinople, surrounded by the sea and the Golden Horn, was not easy to take. The walls remained invulnerable for siege engines and weapons.

Offensive

The siege of the city began on April 7, 1453. Representatives of the Sultan conveyed to the emperor a proposal for surrender, to which the ruler offered to pay tribute, cede his territories, but keep the city.

After receiving a refusal, the Sultan ordered the Turkish army to storm the city. The army had high determination, motivation, and was eager to attack, which was the complete opposite of the position of the Romans.

The bet was placed on the Turkish fleet, which must blockade the city from the sea to prevent the arrival of reinforcements from the allies. It was necessary to break through the fortifications and enter the bay.

The Byzantines repulsed the first attack, blocking the entrance to the bay. Despite all attempts, the Turkish fleet was unable to approach the city. We must pay tribute to the courage of the defenders, who on 5 ships took on 150 ships of the Turks, defeating them. The Turks had to change tactics and transport 80 ships by land, which was done on April 22. The Byzantines were unable to burn the fleet due to the betrayal of the Genoese who lived in Galata and warned the Turks.

Collapse of Constantinople

Chaos and despair reigned in the capital of Byzantium. Emperor Constantine XI was offered to surrender the city.

At dawn on May 29, the Turkish army began its final assault. The first attacks were repulsed, but then the situation changed. After taking the main gate, the fighting moved to the city streets. Fighting along with everyone else, the emperor himself fell in battle under unknown circumstances. The Turks completely captured the city.

On May 29, 1453, after two months of stubborn resistance, Constantinople was captured by the Turks. The city fell along with the Great Eastern Empire under pressure from the Turkish army. For three days the Sultan gave the city up for plunder. The wounded Constantine XI had his head cut off and then put on a pole.

The Turks in Constantinople did not spare anyone; they killed everyone they met. Mountains of corpses filled the streets, and the blood of the dead flowed straight into the bay. The Sultan entered the city after stopping violence and robbery by his decree, accompanied by viziers and an escort of the best troops of the Janissaries, Mehmed II proceeded through the streets. Constantinople stood plundered and desecrated.

The Church of St. Sophia was rebuilt and turned into a mosque. The surviving population was granted freedom, but there were too few people left. It was necessary to announce in neighboring cities where the inhabitants came from, and gradually Constantinople was again filled with population. The Sultan kept and supported Greek culture, the church.

The Greeks received the right of self-government within the community, headed by the Patriarch of Constantinople, subordinate to the Sultan. Left continuity with Byzantium and the title of Roman emperor.

Important! According to historians, with the arrival of the Sultan in Byzantium, the Middle Ages ended, and the flight of Greek scholars to Italy became a prerequisite for the Renaissance.

Why did Byzantium fall

Historians have been arguing about the reasons for the fall of the Byzantine Empire for a very long time and put forward various versions about the factors that together destroyed the empire.

Here are some causes of death:

• According to one version, Venice contributed to the fall, wanting to eliminate a trading competitor in the eastern Mediterranean.
• Other evidence says that the Egyptian Sultan gave a large bribe to the Venetian Signoria to secure his possessions.
• The most controversial issue is the involvement of the papal curia and the Pope himself who wanted the reunification of the churches.
• Home and objective reason the death of the Byzantine Empire was internal political and economic weakness. This was led to by the attacks of the Crusaders, court intrigues with the change of emperor, the hatred of the Byzantines towards traders who arrived from the Italian republics, and religious strife that caused hatred of Catholics and Latins. All this was accompanied by riots, pogroms and bloody massacres with many victims.
• Military superiority and the cohesion of the Turkish army, the Ottoman Empire began to seize new territories in southeastern Europe, expanding its influence also to Asia, the Caucasus and the north African continent. The Byzantine Empire existed for more than a thousand years, but could not withstand the onslaught of the Turkish army, since it no longer possessed its former greatness.

On May 29, 1453, the capital of the Byzantine Empire fell to the Turks. Tuesday 29 May is one of the important dates world On this day, the Byzantine Empire, created back in 395, ceased to exist as a result of the final division of the Roman Empire after the death of Emperor Theodosius I into western and eastern parts. With her death, a huge period of human history ended. In the lives of many peoples of Europe, Asia and North Africa, a radical change occurred due to the establishment of Turkish rule and the creation of the Ottoman Empire.

It is clear that the fall of Constantinople is not a clear line between the two eras. The Turks established themselves in Europe a century before the fall of the great capital. And by the time of its fall, the Byzantine Empire was already a fragment of its former greatness - the emperor’s power extended only to Constantinople with its suburbs and part of the territory of Greece with the islands. Byzantium of the 13th-15th centuries can only be called an empire conditionally. At the same time, Constantinople was a symbol of the ancient empire and was considered the “Second Rome”.

Background of the fall

In the 13th century, one of the Turkic tribes - the Kays - led by Ertogrul Bey, forced out of their nomadic camps in the Turkmen steppes, migrated westward and stopped in Asia Minor. The tribe assisted the Sultan of the largest Turkish state (founded by the Seljuk Turks) - the Rum (Konya) Sultanate - Alaeddin Kay-Kubad in his fight against the Byzantine Empire. For this, the Sultan gave Ertogrul land in the region of Bithynia as fief. The son of the leader Ertogrul - Osman I (1281-1326), despite his constantly growing power, recognized his dependence on Konya. Only in 1299 did he accept the title of Sultan and soon subjugated the entire western part of Asia Minor, winning a series of victories over the Byzantines. By the name of Sultan Osman, his subjects began to be called Ottoman Turks, or Ottomans (Ottomans). In addition to wars with the Byzantines, the Ottomans fought for the subjugation of other Muslim possessions - by 1487, the Ottoman Turks established their power over all Muslim possessions of the Asia Minor Peninsula.

The Muslim clergy, including local dervish orders, played a major role in strengthening the power of Osman and his successors. The clergy not only played a significant role in the creation of a new great power, but justified the policy of expansion as a “struggle for faith.” In 1326, the largest trading city of Bursa, the most important point of transit caravan trade between the West and the East, was captured by the Ottoman Turks. Then Nicaea and Nicomedia fell. The sultans distributed the lands captured from the Byzantines to the nobility and distinguished warriors as timars - conditional possessions received for serving (estates). Gradually, the Timar system became the basis of the socio-economic and military-administrative structure of the Ottoman state. Under Sultan Orhan I (ruled from 1326 to 1359) and his son Murad I (ruled from 1359 to 1389), important military reforms were carried out: the irregular cavalry was reorganized - cavalry and infantry troops convened from Turk farmers were created. Warriors mounted and infantry troops in peacetime they were farmers, receiving benefits; during war they were obliged to join the army. In addition, the army was supplemented by a militia of peasants of the Christian faith and a corps of Janissaries. The Janissaries initially took captured Christian youths who were forced to convert to Islam, and from the first half of the 15th century - from the sons of Christian subjects of the Ottoman Sultan (in the form of a special tax). The Sipahis (a kind of nobles of the Ottoman Empire who received income from the Timars) and the Janissaries became the core of the army Ottoman sultans. In addition, units of gunners, gunsmiths and other units were created in the army. As a result, a powerful power arose on the borders of Byzantium, which claimed dominance in the region.

It must be said that the Byzantine Empire and the Balkan states themselves accelerated their fall. During this period, there was a sharp struggle between Byzantium, Genoa, Venice and the Balkan states. Often the fighting parties sought to gain military support from the Ottomans. Naturally, this greatly facilitated the expansion of the Ottoman power. The Ottomans received information about routes, possible crossings, fortifications, strengths and weaknesses of the enemy troops, the internal situation, etc. Christians themselves helped cross the straits to Europe.

The Ottoman Turks achieved great success under Sultan Murad II (ruled 1421-1444 and 1446-1451). Under him, the Turks recovered from the heavy defeat inflicted by Tamerlane in the Battle of Angora in 1402. In many ways, it was this defeat that delayed the death of Constantinople for half a century. The Sultan suppressed all the uprisings of the Muslim rulers. In June 1422, Murad besieged Constantinople, but was unable to take it. The lack of a fleet and powerful artillery had an effect. In 1430 it was captured Big City Thessalonica in northern Greece, it belonged to the Venetians. Murad II won a number of important victories on the Balkan Peninsula, significantly expanding the possessions of his power. So in October 1448 the battle took place on the Kosovo Field. In this battle, the Ottoman army opposed the combined forces of Hungary and Wallachia under the command of the Hungarian general Janos Hunyadi. The fierce three-day battle ended with the complete victory of the Ottomans, and decided the fate of the Balkan peoples - for several centuries they found themselves under the rule of the Turks. After this battle, the Crusaders suffered a final defeat and made no further serious attempts to recapture the Balkan Peninsula from the Ottoman Empire. The fate of Constantinople was decided, the Turks had the opportunity to solve the problem of capturing ancient city. Byzantium itself no longer posed a great threat to the Turks, but a coalition of Christian countries, relying on Constantinople, could cause significant harm. The city was located practically in the middle of the Ottoman possessions, between Europe and Asia. The task of capturing Constantinople was decided by Sultan Mehmed II.

Byzantium. By the 15th century, the Byzantine power had lost most of its possessions. The entire 14th century was a period of political failure. For several decades it seemed that Serbia would be able to capture Constantinople. Various internal strife were a constant source civil wars. Thus, the Byzantine emperor John V Palaiologos (who reigned from 1341 to 1391) was overthrown from the throne three times: by his father-in-law, his son and then his grandson. In 1347, the Black Death epidemic swept through, killing at least a third of the population of Byzantium. The Turks crossed to Europe, and taking advantage of the troubles of Byzantium and the Balkan countries, by the end of the century they reached the Danube. As a result, Constantinople was surrounded on almost all sides. In 1357, the Turks captured Gallipoli, and in 1361, Adrianople, which became the center of Turkish possessions on the Balkan Peninsula. In 1368, Nissa (the suburban seat of the Byzantine emperors) submitted to Sultan Murad I, and the Ottomans were already under the walls of Constantinople.

In addition, there was the problem of the struggle between supporters and opponents of the union with the Catholic Church. For many Byzantine politicians it was obvious that without the help of the West, the empire could not survive. Back in 1274, at the Council of Lyon, the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII promised the pope to seek reconciliation of the churches for political and economic reasons. True, his son Emperor Andronikos II convened a council of the Eastern Church, which rejected the decisions of the Lyon Council. Then John Palaiologos went to Rome, where he solemnly accepted the faith according to the Latin rite, but did not receive help from the West. Supporters of union with Rome were mainly politicians or belonged to the intellectual elite. The lower clergy were the open enemies of the union. John VIII Palaiologos (Byzantine emperor in 1425-1448) believed that Constantinople could only be saved with the help of the West, so he tried to conclude a union with the Roman Church as quickly as possible. In 1437, together with the patriarch and a delegation of Orthodox bishops, the Byzantine emperor went to Italy and spent more than two years there, first in Ferrara, and then at the Ecumenical Council in Florence. At these meetings, both sides often reached an impasse and were ready to stop negotiations. But John forbade his bishops to leave the council until a compromise decision was made. In the end, the Orthodox delegation was forced to concede to the Catholics on almost all major issues. On July 6, 1439, the Union of Florence was adopted, and the Eastern churches were reunited with the Latin. True, the union turned out to be fragile; after a few years, many Orthodox hierarchs present at the Council began to openly deny their agreement with the union or say that the decisions of the Council were caused by bribery and threats from Catholics. As a result, the union was rejected by most Eastern churches. The majority of the clergy and people did not accept this union. In 1444, the Pope was able to organize a crusade against the Turks (the main force was the Hungarians), but at Varna the crusaders suffered a crushing defeat.

Disputes about the union took place against the backdrop of the country's economic decline. Constantinople at the end of the 14th century was a sad city, a city of decline and destruction. The loss of Anatolia deprived the capital of the empire of almost all agricultural land. The population of Constantinople, which in the 12th century numbered up to 1 million people (together with the suburbs), fell to 100 thousand and continued to decline - by the time of the fall there were approximately 50 thousand people in the city. The suburb on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus was captured by the Turks. The suburb of Pera (Galata) on the other side of the Golden Horn was a colony of Genoa. The city itself, surrounded by a 14-mile wall, lost a number of neighborhoods. In fact, the city turned into several separate settlements, separated by vegetable gardens, orchards, abandoned parks, and ruins of buildings. Many had their own walls and fences. The most populous villages were located along the banks of the Golden Horn. The richest quarter adjacent to the bay belonged to the Venetians. Nearby were streets where Westerners lived - Florentines, Anconans, Ragusians, Catalans and Jews. But the piers and bazaars were still full of traders from Italian cities, Slavic and Muslim lands. Pilgrims, mainly from Rus', arrived in the city every year.

Last years before the fall of Constantinople, preparations for war

The last emperor of Byzantium was Constantine XI Palaiologos (who ruled in 1449-1453). Before becoming emperor, he was the despot of Morea, a Greek province of Byzantium. Konstantin had a sound mind, was a good warrior and administrator. He had the gift of arousing the love and respect of his subjects; he was greeted in the capital with great joy. During the short years of his reign, he prepared Constantinople for a siege, sought help and alliance in the West, and tried to calm the turmoil caused by the union with the Roman Church. He appointed Luka Notaras as his first minister and commander-in-chief of the fleet.

Sultan Mehmed II received the throne in 1451. He was purposeful, energetic, clever man. Although it was initially believed that this was not a young man brimming with talents, this impression was formed from the first attempt to rule in 1444-1446, when his father Murad II (he transferred the throne to his son in order to distance himself from state affairs) had to return to the throne to resolve emerging issues. problems. This calmed the European rulers; they all had their own problems. Already in the winter of 1451-1452. Sultan Mehmed ordered the construction of a fortress to begin at the narrowest point of the Bosphorus Strait, thereby cutting off Constantinople from the Black Sea. The Byzantines were confused - this was the first step towards a siege. An embassy was sent with a reminder of the oath of the Sultan, who promised to preserve the territorial integrity of Byzantium. The embassy left no answer. Constantine sent envoys with gifts and asked not to touch the Greek villages located on the Bosporus. The Sultan ignored this mission too. In June, a third embassy was sent - this time the Greeks were arrested and then beheaded. In fact, it was a declaration of war.

By the end of August 1452, the Bogaz-Kesen fortress (“cutting the strait” or “cutting the throat”) was built. Powerful guns were installed in the fortress and a ban was announced on passing the Bosphorus without inspection. Two Venetian ships were driven off and the third was sunk. The crew was beheaded and the captain was impaled - this dispelled all illusions about Mehmed's intentions. The actions of the Ottomans caused concern not only in Constantinople. The Venetians owned an entire quarter in the Byzantine capital; they had significant privileges and benefits from trade. It was clear that after the fall of Constantinople the Turks would not stop; Venice’s possessions in Greece and the Aegean Sea were under attack. The problem was that the Venetians were bogged down in a costly war in Lombardy. An alliance with Genoa was impossible; relations with Rome were strained. And I didn’t want to spoil relations with the Turks - the Venetians also carried out profitable trade in Ottoman ports. Venice allowed Constantine to recruit soldiers and sailors in Crete. In general, Venice remained neutral during this war.

Genoa found itself in approximately the same situation. The fate of Pera and the Black Sea colonies caused concern. The Genoese, like the Venetians, showed flexibility. The government appealed to the Christian world to send assistance to Constantinople, but they themselves did not provide such support. Private citizens were given the right to act as they wished. The administrations of Pera and the island of Chios were instructed to follow such a policy towards the Turks as they considered most appropriate in the current situation.

The Ragusans, residents of the city of Ragus (Dubrovnik), as well as the Venetians, recently received confirmation of their privileges in Constantinople from the Byzantine emperor. But the Dubrovnik Republic did not want to put its trade in Ottoman ports at risk. In addition, the city-state had a small fleet and did not want to risk it unless there was a broad coalition of Christian states.

Pope Nicholas V (head of the Catholic Church from 1447 to 1455), having received a letter from Constantine agreeing to accept the union, appealed in vain to various sovereigns for help. There was no proper response to these calls. Only in October 1452, the papal legate to the emperor Isidore brought with him 200 archers hired in Naples. The problem of union with Rome again caused controversy and unrest in Constantinople. December 12, 1452 in the church of St. Sophia served a solemn liturgy in the presence of the emperor and the entire court. It mentioned the names of the Pope and Patriarch and officially proclaimed the provisions of the Union of Florence. Most of the townspeople accepted this news with sullen passivity. Many hoped that if the city stood, it would be possible to reject the union. But having paid this price for help, the Byzantine elite miscalculated - ships with soldiers from Western states did not arrive to help the dying empire.

At the end of January 1453, the issue of war was finally resolved. Turkish troops in Europe were ordered to attack Byzantine cities in Thrace. The cities on the Black Sea surrendered without a fight and escaped pogrom. Some cities on the coast of the Sea of ​​Marmara tried to defend themselves and were destroyed. Part of the army invaded the Peloponnese and attacked the brothers of Emperor Constantine so that they could not come to the aid of the capital. The Sultan took into account the fact that a number of previous attempts to take Constantinople (by his predecessors) failed due to the lack of a fleet. The Byzantines had the opportunity to transport reinforcements and supplies by sea. In March, all the ships at the Turks' disposal are brought to Gallipoli. Some of the ships were new, built within the last few months. The Turkish fleet had 6 triremes (two-masted sailing-rowing ships, one oar was held by three oarsmen), 10 biremes (a one-masted ship, where there were two rowers on one oar), 15 galleys, about 75 fustas (light, fast ships), 20 parandarii (heavy transport barges) and a mass of small sailing boats and lifeboats. The head of the Turkish fleet was Suleiman Baltoglu. The rowers and sailors were prisoners, criminals, slaves and some volunteers. At the end of March, the Turkish fleet passed through the Dardanelles into the Sea of ​​Marmara, causing horror among the Greeks and Italians. This was another blow to the Byzantine elite; they did not expect that the Turks would prepare such significant naval forces and be able to blockade the city from the sea.

At the same time, an army was being prepared in Thrace. All winter, gunsmiths tirelessly worked on various types of weapons, engineers created battering and stone-throwing machines. A powerful strike force of approximately 100 thousand people was assembled. Of these, 80 thousand were regular troops - cavalry and infantry, Janissaries (12 thousand). There were approximately 20-25 thousand irregular troops - militias, bashi-bazouks (irregular cavalry, the “crazy” did not receive pay and “rewarded” themselves with looting), rear units. The Sultan also paid great attention to artillery - the Hungarian master Urban cast several powerful cannons capable of sinking ships (with the help of one of them a Venetian ship was sunk) and destroying powerful fortifications. The largest of them was pulled by 60 oxen, and a team of several hundred people was assigned to it. The gun fired cannonballs weighing approximately 1,200 pounds (about 500 kg). During March, the Sultan's huge army began to gradually move towards the Bosphorus. On April 5, Mehmed II himself arrived under the walls of Constantinople. The morale of the army was high, everyone believed in success and hoped for rich booty.

The people in Constantinople were depressed. The huge Turkish fleet in the Sea of ​​Marmara and strong enemy artillery only increased anxiety. People recalled predictions about the fall of the empire and the coming of the Antichrist. But it cannot be said that the threat deprived all people of the will to resist. All winter, men and women, encouraged by the emperor, worked to clear ditches and strengthen the walls. A fund was created for unforeseen expenses - the emperor, churches, monasteries and private individuals made investments in it. It should be noted that the problem was not the availability of money, but the lack of the required number of people, weapons (especially firearms), and the problem of food. All weapons were collected in one place so that, if necessary, they could be distributed to the most threatened areas.

There was no hope for external help. Only a few private individuals provided support for Byzantium. Thus, the Venetian colony in Constantinople offered its assistance to the emperor. Two captains of Venetian ships returning from the Black Sea, Gabriele Trevisano and Alviso Diedo, took an oath to participate in the fight. In total, the fleet defending Constantinople consisted of 26 ships: 10 of them belonged to the Byzantines themselves, 5 to the Venetians, 5 to the Genoese, 3 to the Cretans, 1 came from Catalonia, 1 from Ancona and 1 from Provence. Several noble Genoese arrived to fight for the Christian faith. For example, a volunteer from Genoa, Giovanni Giustiniani Longo, brought 700 soldiers with him. Giustiniani was known as an experienced military man, so he was appointed by the emperor to command the defense of the land walls. In total, the Byzantine emperor, not including his allies, had about 5-7 thousand soldiers. It should be noted that part of the city’s population left Constantinople before the siege began. Some of the Genoese - the colony of Pera and the Venetians - remained neutral. On the night of February 26, seven ships - 1 from Venice and 6 from Crete - left the Golden Horn, taking away 700 Italians.

To be continued…

"The Death of an Empire. Byzantine lesson"- a journalistic film by the abbot of the Moscow Sretensky Monastery, Archimandrite Tikhon (Shevkunov). The premiere took place on the state channel “Russia” on January 30, 2008. The presenter, Archimandrite Tikhon (Shevkunov), gives his version of the collapse of the Byzantine Empire in the first person.

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