1. Case of nouns
Nouns change by case. case- the form of a noun, expressing its syntactic relationship with other words in the sentence. Case is an inflectional category, realized with the help of endings. In russian language six cases:
- nominative(the nominative case is always used without a preposition, in a sentence it is the subject or predicate);
- indirect cases: genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, prepositional (the prepositional case is always used with prepositions, other indirect cases can be used with or without prepositions).
2. Declension of nouns
declination- this is a change of nouns in cases. Exist three declensions nouns. The distribution by declension depends on the gender of nouns and their ending in the nominative singular.
3. Special endings of nouns in -y, -y, -y
Nouns of the 1st declension on -and I(army, lecture) and 2nd declension on -th And -s(genius, sanatorium, meeting) in the prepositional case have an ending -And(about a genius, in a sanatorium, at a meeting, in the army). Nouns in -and I in the dative case also end in -And(cf .: give to Marya, but give to Mary).
4. Variable nouns
ten nouns per -me (burden, time, udder, banner, name, flame, tribe, seed, stirrup, crown ) and the noun path are inflected. In the genitive, dative and prepositional cases of the singular, they have the ending of the 3rd declension -i. In other cases, they have endings of the 2nd declension.
When declensing nouns into -me a formative suffix is added to the root -en (-yeon): names - names, banners - banners. Words seed And stirrup in the genitive plural have a suffix -yang(but not - en): seeds, stirrups. Words burden, udder, flame, crown do not have a plural.
5. Indeclinable nouns
Indeclinable nouns have the same form for all cases, i.e. do not bow: bought a piano (v.p.), play piano (p.p.). The indestructibles include:
- many nouns of foreign origin with final vowels: radio, metro, scoreboard, taxi, stew, kangaroo, menu, Dumas, Oslo, Baku;
- foreign surnames ending in a consonant and denoting females: Roman Voynich (r.p.); if such a surname denotes a male person, it is inclined according to the 2nd declension: Remarque's novel;
- Russian and Ukrainian surnames in -o and -ih (s): Franko, Chernykh, Dolgikh, Zhivago’, such surnames are not inclined regardless of the gender of the person bearing this surname;
- many compound words: Moscow State University, GAI, hydroelectric power station.
Nouns in -anine, -yanin in many hours lose suffix -in: city dweller - townspeople .
Nouns are especially declined: mother, daughter, way, child.
Declension of nouns in the singular. Table
6. Declension of plural nouns
1. Most nouns in nominative plural have endings:
1st fold. and. R. abbreviations s, army And, m. men s, young man And
2nd fold. m. Baby And, father s cf. floor I, glass A
3rd fold. and. R. step And, daughter And
2. Some nouns masculine nominative plural are used with the endings -А, -Я. For example: beach A, century A, city A, postmark I, anchor I.
3. Nouns differ in meaning:
4. In the nominative plural, two forms of endings are possible.
Nouns are very widely represented in Russian. They can act as main and secondary members of the proposal. Using the cases of nouns, the speaker and writer can connect these parts of speech with others in the context of the sentence. Cases are directly related to another category of a noun - its declension. From the correct definition of which, by the way, the spelling correctness of the written depends.
Case category
The case of nouns is such a grammatical category that indicates the relation of a given part of speech to other words in a sentence. These connections can be realized not only with the help of case forms - prepositions help in this, as well as intonation coloring and even word order.
In modern Russian, there are only 6 case forms.
Case name | Issues of cases of nouns | |
Nominative | ||
Genitive | Whom? What? | |
Dative | To whom? What? | |
Accusative | Whom? What? | |
Instrumental | ||
Prepositional | About whom? About what? |
Once upon a time in the Old Russian language there was another, seventh, vocative case. But it has lost its significance in the course of the development of linguistic culture. Echoes of the vocative case remained in common speech. Previously, it was comparable to the nominative and denoted the appeal: father, man. On present stage development of the Russian language, it is realized in such colloquial appeals: Sing, Vas, Tan, etc.
Meaning and form of expression of cases. Nominative
Apart from grammatical meaning, cases of nouns have lexical. Let's sort them out.
Nominative. This is the basic form of the noun. Used in academic literature (dictionary entries). In this case, there is always a subject, as well as a word in it. n. can be an integral part of the predicate.
Example: Roses bloomed in time. Subject roses is in the nominative case.
Another example: This tree is a birch. Subject tree(Name p., predicate birch- the nominal part of the compound nominal predicate, stands in Im. P.).
Genitive case meanings
Genitive. Can associate nouns with various parts speech. So, if the genitive case connects two nouns, then it will denote:
- a substance whose measure is indicated: liter of kvass;
- affiliation: mom's shoes b;
- object of any action: boiling water;
- definition relationships: the beauty of the fields.
The genitive case is used when comparative degree adjectives: stronger than (whom?) Bull. With a quantitative numeral: a thousand (what?) rubles.
As for the verb and verb forms, this case is used in the following cases:
- denotes a specific object when associated with transitive verb: issue a receipt;
- used after verbs like to be afraid, to seek, to deprive me and others: seek (what?) permission.
The genitive case is used when reporting the exact date. For example: She was born on the sixth (what?) of March, nineteen eighty-two.
Meanings of the dative and accusative cases
Other cases of nouns are not so rich in lexical meanings and grammatical connections. So, the dative case is associated with verbs and some nouns (verbal). Has a side object value: to help parents(compare: help around the house- direct object).
The accusative case indicates that we have a direct object: writing a poem.
Instrumental and prepositional cases
A noun in the instrumental case will have the following meanings:
- tool or method of action: to beat (with what?) with a fist(way), beat (with what?) with a hammer(tool);
- the subject performing the action: spelled (by whom?) by mother; washed (with what?) with a rag;
- is part of the nominal part of the predicate: she was (who?) a doctor.
The prepositional case is special, this is clear from its name. He always asks for a preposition. May refer to:
- topic of conversation, thoughts, etc.: let's talk (about what?) about the work of Goethe; I think (about whom?) about a beautiful stranger;
- temporal and geographical indicators: met (when?) last weekend; work (where?) in a cafe.
- used to indicate a date, but not a full one, but with an indication of the year: I was born (when?) in 1990.
Noun declension
To write spelling correctly, you need to know not only cases. The declension of nouns has a paramount role. There are three types of declension in Russian, each of them requires certain endings. To determine whether nouns belong to one of them, case, gender, you need to know first of all.
Nouns such as homeland, land, frame, belong to the first declension. They are united by belonging to the feminine gender and the endings -а/-я. Also, few masculine nouns fell into these declensions: Vitya, grandfather, father. In addition to the gender, they are united by the endings -а / -я.
The group of masculine nouns is much larger: son-in-law, wolf, sofa. They have a null ending. Such words belong to the second declension. The same group includes neuter nouns with inflection -о/-е: sea, building, crime.
If you have a noun female ending in soft sign(zero ending), it will refer to the third declension: rye, youth, daughter, brooch.
Nouns can have an adjective declension, that is, they change in cases like adjectives and participles. This includes those who have made the transition from these parts of speech to a noun: living room, meeting.
To determine which cases of nouns are used in a sentence, you need to find the word to which the noun refers and ask a question.
For example, let's define cases and declensions of nouns in a sentence: The motorcyclist was driving on level ground.
Subject motorcyclist does not refer to any other word because it is main member sentences, therefore, is in the nominative case. We determine the declension: the zero ending and the masculine gender indicate that the word is 2 declensions. Noun with preposition by terrain depends on the word rode. We ask a question: drove (where?) through the area. This is a matter of prepositional case. terrain- feminine, ends in b, so the declension is third.
Declension of singular nouns
To determine with what ending you want to write a noun, gender, number, case and declension, you must know. Declension is hard and soft: the word can end in a soft or hard consonant. For example: lamp- solid type; pot- soft.
Let us give examples of the declension of singular nouns and pay attention to the endings in some forms.
first declension
solid type | soft type | ||
Nominative | Provocation |
||
Genitive | Provocations |
||
Dative | Provocations |
||
Accusative | Provocation |
||
Instrumental | Provocation |
||
Prepositional | About provocation |
Pay attention to the dative and prepositional cases. They require the ending -e. In a noun on -iya, on the contrary, in these cases one should write the ending -и.
Second declension
masculine | Neuter gender |
||||
solid type | solid type | soft type | |||
Nominative | |||||
Genitive | |||||
Dative | |||||
Accusative | |||||
Instrumental | |||||
Prepositional | |||||
Here we pay attention to the prepositional case: it requires the ending -e. If the noun ends in -й / -е, then in this case it is necessary to write -и.
third declension
Pay attention to the genitive, dative and prepositional cases: they require the ending -i. It should also be remembered that after hissing in the singular in this declension, it is required to write a soft sign. It is not needed in the plural.
Declension of plural nouns
Let's analyze the cases of plural nouns.
1 declination | 2 declension | 3 declension |
|||
solid type | soft type | masculine | Neuter gender | ||
Nominative | pans | ||||
Genitive | saucepans | ||||
Dative | Pictures | pots | |||
Accusative | pans | ||||
Instrumental | paintings | pans | barracks | ||
Prepositional | About the paintings | About pots | About barracks | ||
Nouns in the dative, instrumental, and prepositional cases have identical endings.
The endings -i/-ы or -а/-я have plural nouns. The first can be in all three declensions, the second - in some nouns of the second declension: director, watchman, professor.
To distinguish the lexical meanings of plural nouns, different endings are used: sheet, But leaves (of a tree) And sheets (of a book).
Nouns like contracts, elections, engineers, officers, designers it is required to write only with the ending -s. Another flexion is a violation of the norm.
Inflected nouns
The Russian language has a unique group of nouns. When changing in cases, they have endings of different declensions. The group includes those words that end in -my (for example, time, stirrup), as well as the word path.
Singular | Plural |
|||
Nominative | stirrups | |||
Genitive | stirrup | |||
Dative | stirrup | stirrups | ||
Accusative | stirrups | |||
Instrumental | stirrup | stirrups | ||
Prepositional | about the stirrup | about stirrups | ||
Like nouns of the 3rd declension, these words in the singular, genitive, dative and prepositional cases require the ending -i.
Immutable nouns
Another special group of nouns is invariables. They are not put in the form of number and case. They always have the same form: without kimono(R. p.) - about kimono(P. p.); new kimono(units) - bought kimonos(plural).
How to determine in this case how the noun is grammatically expressed? Number, case, look at the word to which it refers. Examples:
1. Pedestrians hurried along the new highway.
2. New highways are laid.
In the first sentence, we determine the number and case by adjective new(singular h., D. p.). In the second - also by adjective new(pl., Im.p.).
Invariable nouns are, as a rule, foreign words, like common nouns ( soda, cafe) and own ( Baku, Hugo). Complexly abbreviated words (abbreviations) are also invariable. For example: computer, nuclear power plant.
Many of us remember from school what is called declension. But not everyone will be able to reproduce all the aspects associated with it. But the knowledge of the rules associated with the declension of names nouns, will help us not to make spelling mistakes in the future.
Actually any independent part of speech (except for adverbs and participles) can change according to its own rules. Verbs, changing in persons and numbers, hide, and nominal parts of speech are declined. What does this mean anyway? Declension of words is the ability of nouns, adjectives, numerals and participles to change according to:
- Childbirth (male, middle, female, not counting them. n.).
- Numbers (singular and plural).
- Cases.
The set of Russian rules, Grammar-80, which is recognizable to many, explains in a different way what is called declension. He proposes to define it as a change in the class of words by cases. Which of the definitions is closer and what is called declension, everyone is free to choose for himself.
Based on the definition of declination in Russian language, we need to remember what a case is. They are called a grammatical form that connects any noun with the words of other parts of speech. The case indicates how specifically the parts of speech agree with each other.
For a long time, the case system was subject to change. IN Old Russian language, there were not 6, as in our time, but seven cases. The next one was called vocative. Today it has already been abolished, and now there are 6 of them.
- Nominative. A special case, since it is only called direct (who? What?), Others are indirect. In the form of pad. the subjects appear in the sentences. Another of its features: it is the original form for nominal parts of speech.
- Genitive. This form answers the questions Who? What? In order not to confuse it with other cases, you can substitute the auxiliary word no: cat to them. n, (no) cat genus. P.
- Dative. This case is named so because it answers the questions To whom? What? Declension of words will be easier if you substitute the word give: cat dates. P.
- Accusative. Quite controversial form. Has a question similar to the nominative case for inanimate objects- What? True, in relation to living creatures, the question is Whom? The word blame, substituted for the one he is testing. noun will help you understand the rules of declension: (blame) cat vin. P.
- Instrumental. Special case. Answers the questions Who? How? Check word to create for him: cat tv. pad.
- Prepositional. Form that answers the questions About whom? About what? For easy memorization, we substitute the word think: about the cat preposition. P.
We remembered the case system that the Russian language studies. The declension also depends on the category of the number. There are only two of them in our language - singular and plural. Almost all nouns have both forms. But, as with any rule, there are exceptions. Some words are used exclusively in one single form. An example of those that have only a single number: the sun (well, that's reasonable, it exists in one copy), milk, foliage, highway (it is foreign).
But Russian the language is so diverse that it has in its arsenal words that are used only in the plural. Example: scissors, pants, glasses, watches, people.
The declension system in the Russian language, as you know, consists of 3 groups. Each of them has its own characteristics. The 1st declension has the following special features:
- Words that name certain males that have the endings a or -ya. uncle, man, dad, Vanya.
- Nouns that also have the endings a or i. denoting people and objects of the feminine gender: spring, hand, aunt, Anna.
- The same endings (-а/-я) with nouns generic(in other words, they immediately designate both male and female persons): crybaby, grump, sleepyhead, slob.
- Nouns that have zero endings in their original form and are masculine: table, stump, ceiling, spouse.
- Spouse words. kind, but ending in o or e. house.
- Them. noun with endings about or e of the middle gender: sky, spot, sea, gun.
This group of nouns is the most special. It includes only words of the feminine gender and only with a zero ending: mouse, oven, life, reality.
You need to keep in mind the fundamental rule regarding the third declension: when a word ends in one of the hissing sounds, a soft symbol (daughter, night, bake) is certainly written in it. Do not confuse them with nouns of the second declension into hissing (beam, cloak, tick). They are masculine, and therefore do not require writing a soft sign at the end.
Summing up the above, we were able to put together the declension of nouns. The table shows everything more clearly. Study it closely.
Now we know what is called declension and what words apply to each of them. But far from the entire lexical composition of our language obeys these rules. There are nouns that have absorbed the endings of both the first and second declensions. They are called dissimilar.
What are the characteristics of such nouns? Firstly, almost all of them end in me: time, name, burden, stirrup, and others. And the word path also belongs to this group.
Secondly, the rules for the declension of heterogeneous nouns are such that when these words change in cases in all forms, there will be a suffix en (except for I.p. and V.p.): time, stirrup, seed.
Thirdly, by inclining these words, we can see that in genitive, dative and prepositional cases, they took the ending and from 3 cl. and in the creative, the ending -em appeared, as in the 2nd declension.
Our speech is fast replenished new words of foreign origin. They do not have declension forms in Russian and are therefore called indeclinable.
- Foreign words that came to us from other languages in o, -e, -i, -u. coat, fillet, Sochi, kangaroo. In all cases, they will have the same form, so there is simply no point in inflecting them. (Go to the coat, go to the kangaroo, go to Sochi.)
- Surnames ending in ko, -ago, -y. Yurchenko, Zhivago, Belykh. (To be visiting Kozarenko, to come to the Reds.)
- Words formed by the abbreviation method: USSR, ATS.
Related to this topic is the correct spelling of the letters and and e at the end of nouns. Following the rules of declension, we were able to reveal that the ending e is written in words:
- First declension (genus item is an exception): to the river (dat.p.), about mother (pr.p.), on the topic (dat.p.).
- Second declension: about the beam (pr.p.), about the sea (pr.p.)
- Third declension: in the steppe (pr.p.), towards the night (dat.p.)
- First skl. used in childbirth. case: by the river.
- In words ending in ee, ii, ia. V planetariums, by promotion, about the event.
- In inflected nouns, they also write and. on the way, about time.
After reading these simple rules, you will know what is called declination. Do not confuse it with the inflection of other parts of speech, such as conjugation of verbs.
It is necessary to study it, because our practical literacy depends on theoretical knowledge. From our article, we can draw the following conclusions:
- Nouns change not only by cases, but also by numbers.
- But it is worth remembering that not all words of this part of speech have these categories. Some of them cannot be declined at all (indeclinable) and do not have one of the numerical forms (only plural or singular).
- Each of the declensions has its own characteristics, so you should carefully study them. We gave an example of declension of nouns (table).
- Personal endings that do not have an accent are subject to a set of certain rules. Depending on the declension and case, the letter will be written either e or i. This topic one of the most difficult in the course of learning nouns.
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The term "declension" in Russian refers to the change in nominal parts of speech (nouns, numerals, adjectives and pronouns) in numbers and cases. To understand well what declension is, you need to familiarize yourself with all the types of declension that exist in the Russian language. Let's take a look at some of them as an example. school curriculum.
Declension of nouns
There are several groups of nouns in Russian, which, when declined by cases and numbers, have the same forms (endings). What is the declension of nouns? These very groups, in which certain nouns are inflected in the same way, will be the types of declension of nouns.
- I declension - have feminine and masculine nouns, which in the singular and nominative case have ending -a, -i(meadow, army, cat, crybaby).
- II declension - have masculine nouns ending in -o, -e or zero ending, as well as neuter nouns ending in -o or -e in the singular and in the nominative case (gorge, window, house, com, sea) .
- III declension - have only feminine nouns, which in the singular and in the nominative case have a zero ending (and a soft sign at the end). Examples: stove, laziness, daughter, flow. The third declension also includes nouns that are called heterogeneous. Such words have different case endings characteristic of different types of declension. These are the words: path, udder, flame, banner, time, stirrup, tribe, seed, name, burden, crown.
Declension of adjectives
Under the declension of adjectives, we, first of all, understand the change in cases, gender and numbers. These characteristics depend on the noun on which the adjective depends (with which it agrees). The declension of adjectives includes a change in cases and numbers, and in units. including by birth. Short adjectives change only by gender and number.
There are three types of adjective declension:
- Solid. This is a declension of adjectives with a stem into a solid consonant (white, red).
- Soft - declension of adjectives with a stem into a soft consonant (blue, summer).
- Mixed. This declension includes adjectives with a basis for hard and soft “k”, “g”, “x”, as well as “sh” with a stressed ending and “c”, “zh” (quiet, long, wide, handsome, good, stubby). Such adjectives in their declension have both soft and hard declensions.
Declension of numerals
All numerals change in cases. Collective and cardinal numbers are declined like nouns and adjectives.
- Just like the nouns of the third declension, the following numerals decline: 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, numerals for -twenty, numerals for -ten.
- In a separate group of declensions, it is necessary to single out 200, 300, 400 and numerals for -hundreds.
- Numerals 40, 90, 100 have only two forms in all cases. The first is this form in the nominative and accusative cases. The second is a form in indirect cases. Forms in oblique cases end with the letter "a". In the nominative and accusative cases, such numerals have initial form.
- The numeral "one and a half" has two forms in I. p .: one and a half (m. p. and cf. p.) and one and a half (f. p.). The form of all other cases, except for the accusative, is "one and a half".
- As adjectives, such numerals decline: 2, 3, 4, collective numerals, both, both, as much as, somehow, so much.
- In compound cardinal numbers, each word is declined: two thousand five hundred.
- In compound ordinal numbers, only the last word is declined: in one thousand nine hundred and five.
We have considered one more question from the field of the Russian language. What is declination, you now know and understand.
Declensions". They talk about the types of declension of individual parts of speech (for example, in Russian they distinguish substantive - declension of nouns, adjective - declension of adjectives and pronominal declension) and individual groups words within the same part of speech. So, traditionally in the Russian substantive declension, I ( head - heads), II ( table - table) and III ( notebook - notebooks) types of declension, as well as special cases: indeclinable words (in which all forms coincide in both numbers: metro, kangaroo, beige etc.), a few words with -en- in indirect cases ( time - time), two words with -er- in indirect cases ( mother - mothers, daughter - daughters), special declension Christ - Christ etc. Other, more economical ways of classifying Russian inflectional paradigms were also proposed - for example, A. A. Zaliznyak combines traditional I and II declensions into “I substantive type of declension” with endings that differ depending on the morphological gender.
There are six types of declension in Latvian, seven types of declension in Armenian, and four types of declension in Ukrainian. Most planned languages have one type of declension.
Declension of nouns in Russian
All nouns can be divided into seven groups, which will have the same endings (forms) when declensed by cases and numbers, that is, there are seven types of declension of nouns:
- I declension - nouns of feminine, masculine and general gender, having the ending -а (-я) in the nominative case of the singular ( country, land, army, head, uncle, young man, Petya, crybaby, dormouse, bully).
- II declension - masculine nouns with zero ending or ending -о (-е) and nouns and neuter gender with ending -о (-е) in the nominative singular ( house, horse, museum, house, Saraishko, window, sea, gorge, journeyman).
- Nouns declining according to the adjective type (adjective declension) - nouns formed from adjectives and participles by moving from one part of speech to another ( passerby, duty, bathroom, ice cream).
- Indeclinable - nouns that do not have declension forms, do not change in cases; most often foreign-language Taxi, flamingos, cafe, metro, kangaroo).
- Several nouns inflected according to the pronominal type - nouns formed from pronouns by transition from one part of speech to another or inflected like pronouns ( draw, cable).
Formation of declensions in Indo-European languages
In the Indo-European parent language, case endings were in most cases the same for all names. These endings were attached to the stem with one of the connecting (or thematic) vowels a:, o, i, u or u:. In some cases, there may not have been a connecting vowel.
After some time, after the collapse of the proto-language, in some Indo-European languages, case endings began to decline. The connecting vowel could also disappear in one case form, but be preserved in another form of the same word. Since the stem is something that does not depend on the case, the connecting vowel has moved to the ending.
This process is called the re-decomposition of bases; he led to the fact that names that had previously had different connecting vowels began to decline differently. Thus, declensions were formed in the Indo-European languages, of which there were originally six main types: five in accordance with five connecting vowels, and one for words in which this vowel was absent (the so-called athematic declension).
For example, in Latin grammar, five declensions are traditionally distinguished, but the third exists in two variants: the third vowel and the third consonant. In fact, the third consonant is an athematic declension.
Athematic declension
Words belonging to the athematic declension gave exceptions in many languages. In the absence of a thematic vowel, the cash base often underwent phonetic changes. Below is a classification of ancient foundations and examples of exceptions.
Bases with suffix.
- bases on -n (suffixes -n, -en, -men)
- bases in -er (terms of consanguinity)
- stems in -es
- bases on -ent (proto-Slavic suffix meaning children and young animals): this type gave exceptions such as kitty - kittens. Although in this case the exception was not formed by truncation of the stem, nevertheless, an anomaly arose here too.
Root stems (no suffix) have given numerous exceptions to plural formation. For example, in English man(Human) - men(People), mouse(mouse) - mice(mice), etc. In Russian, a child means children.
Notes
Literature
- A. A. Zaliznyak. Russian nominal inflection. - M.: 1967.
- Russian grammar. - M.: AN SSSR, 1980.
- Bulygina T. V., Krylov S. A. Declination // Linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary. - M.: 1990.
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