(“The Quietest”), Fyodor Alekseevich, princes Peter and Ivan during the regency of Princess Sophia.

The main sector of the Russian economy remained agriculture, and the main agricultural crops were rye and oats. Due to the development of new lands in the Volga region, Siberia, and southern Russia, more agricultural products were produced than in the last century, although the methods of cultivating the land remained the same, using a plow and harrow; the plow was introduced slowly.

In the 17th century, the first manufacture was born, trade developed, but very poorly, because... Russia had no access to the sea.

Russian culture of the 17th century was characterized by a gradual departure from church canons, the spread of secular knowledge, and the secularization of architecture, painting, and sculpture. This happened due to the weakening influence of the church and its subordination to the state.

At the end of the 16th century, after his death, his son Fyodor, who was weak-minded, and the young Tsarevich Dmitry were left behind. Fedor could not rule, because Because of his dementia, he “could not keep his facial expression,” so the boyars began to rule instead of him, among whom he stood out. He was very famous because... was a Tatar khan, brother-in-law of Fyodor and son-in-law of Malyuta Skuratov, i.e. had rich family connections.

Boris Godunov did everything quietly, but “meaningfully”, which is why he received the nickname “The Cunning Demon”. Within a few years, he destroyed all his opponents and became the sole ruler under Fedor. When Tsarevich Dmitry died in Uglich in 1591 (according to official version he himself ran into a knife), and in 1598 Tsar Fedor died, Boris Godunov was crowned king. The people believed him and shouted: “Boris to the kingdom!” With the accession of Boris to the throne, the Rurik dynasty came to an end.

Many of the events carried out during his reign were reformist and reminiscent of government. The king’s positive transformations include the following:

1. He was the first to invite foreign specialists, and all foreigners began to be called Germans, not only because there were more Germans among them, but also because they did not speak Russian, i.e. were "dumb".
2. He tried to calm society by uniting the ruling class. To do this, he stopped persecuting the boyars and exalting the nobles, thereby stopping civil war in Russia.
3. Established the outside world at the negotiating table, because. practically did not fight wars.
4. He sent several hundred young nobles to study abroad and was the first to try to shave the beards of the boyars (although only Peter I succeeded).
5. He began the development of the Volga region, during his reign the cities of Samara, Tsaritsyn, and Saratov were built.

The negative thing was the tightening of serfdom - he introduced a five-year period for searching for runaway peasants. The plight of the people was aggravated by the famine of 1601-1603, which began due to the fact that in 1601 it rained all summer, and frost struck early, and in 1602 drought occurred. This undermined the Russian economy, people died of hunger, and cannibalism began in Moscow.

Vasily Shuisky photo

Boris Godunov is trying to suppress a social explosion. He began distributing bread for free from state reserves and established fixed prices for bread. But these measures were not successful, because bread distributors began to speculate on it; moreover, the reserves could not be enough for all the hungry, and the restriction on the price of bread led to the fact that they simply stopped selling it.

In Moscow, about 127 thousand people died during the famine; not everyone had time to bury them, and the bodies of the dead remained on the streets for a long time. The people decide that hunger is the curse of God, and Boris is Satan. Gradually rumors spread that he had ordered the death of Tsarevich Dmitry, then they remembered that the Tsar was a Tatar. This situation was favorable for further events that took place in.

In 1603, Grigory Otrepiev appears, a monk of the Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery, who declared that he was the “miraculously saved” Tsarevich Dmitry. People believed him, Boris Godunov nicknamed him, but he could not prove anything. Get to Russian throne helped the Polish king Sigismund III. False Dmitry made a deal with him, according to which Sigismund gave money and an army, and Gregory, after ascending the Russian throne, had to marry a Polish woman, Marina Mnishek. In addition, False Dmitry promised to give the Western Russian lands with Smolensk to the Poles and introduce Catholicism in Rus'.

False Dmitry's campaign against Moscow lasted two years, but in 1605 he was defeated near Dobrynichi. In June 1605, Boris Godunov died; his 16-year-old son Fyodor was thrown out of a fourth floor window. The entire family of Boris Godunov was killed, only Boris’s daughter, Ksenia, was left alive, but she was destined for the fate of False Dmitry’s mistress.

Alexey Mikhailovich photo

Tsarevich False Dmitry was elected to the throne by all the people, and in June 1605 the tsar solemnly entered Moscow and Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich. False Dmitry was very independent, he was not going to fulfill the promises made to the Polish king (except for his marriage to Marina Mniszech). He tried to introduce fork etiquette into Russian canteens and used it very skillfully at dinner.

Observing this, his entourage decided that he was False Dmitry, because Russian tsars did not know how to use a fork. In May 1606, during an uprising that broke out in Moscow, False Dmitry was killed.

At the Zemsky Sobor of 1606, a boyar was elected tsar. It was during his reign that a Polish mercenary appeared, who gathered an army of peasants and marched on Moscow. At the same time, he said that he was leading Dmitry to the throne. In 1607, the uprising was suppressed, but soon a new impostor appeared in Starodub, posing as Tsarevich Dmitry. Marina Mnishek (for 3 thousand rubles) even “recognized” him as her husband, but he failed to ascend the throne; in 1610 he was killed in Kaluga.

Discontent with Shuisky grew in the country. The nobles, led by Prokopiy Lyapunov, overthrew Shuisky, and he was tonsured a monk. Power passed to the oligarchy of seven boyars, called "". The boyars, led by Fyodor Mstislavsky, began to rule Russia, but they did not have the people's trust and could not decide which of them would rule.

Patriarch Nikon photo

As a result, the Polish prince Vladislav, son of Sigismund III, was called to the throne. Vladislav needed to convert to Orthodoxy, but he was a Catholic and had no intention of changing his faith. The boyars begged him to come “to have a look,” but he was accompanied by a Polish army that captured Moscow. It was possible to preserve the independence of the Russian state only by relying on the people. In the fall of 1611, the first people's militia was formed in Ryazan, led by Prokopiy Lyapunov. But he failed to come to an agreement with the Cossacks and was killed in the Cossack circle.

At the end of 1611 in Kuzma, Minin donated money for the creation. It was headed by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. In October 1612, the Polish garrison in Moscow fell.

At the beginning of 1613, a Zemsky Sobor was held, at which a tsar was to be elected. All social classes were represented there, there were even Cossacks. He was elected to the kingdom thanks to the loud cry of the Cossacks. The Cossacks thought that the king could be easily manipulated, because... he was only 16 years old and did not know a single letter. Mikhail's father, Metropolitan Filaret, was in Polish captivity, his mother was in a monastery. The first wife of Ivan the Terrible was Romanova, and besides, the Romanovs were not “covered up” by the oprichnina, which also played an important role in the election of Mikhail as Tsar.

After his accession to the throne, a struggle begins between the boyars. They decided who to marry the young monarch. However, when the bride was selected, she died. Mikhail married only 13 years later to Evdokia Streshneva, and the boyars were able to gain influence over him.

In 1619, Mikhail’s father returned from captivity, as a result of which dual power was established in the country. Formally, Mikhail ruled, officially - Filaret, and this continued until Filaret's death in 1633. Mikhail's reign was fair and wise. Taxes were reduced, the Russian people paid the so-called “fifth money” to the treasury, and kept 4/5 for themselves. Foreigners were granted the rights to build factories in Russia, and the development of the metallurgical and metalworking industries began.

Peter 1 photo

Mikhail Fedorovich fought almost no wars, and calm came to Russia. In 1645 he died quietly, and his son, Alexei, ascended the throne. For his kindness and gentleness he was nicknamed "The Quietest". He had two wives, from the first, Maria Miloslavskaya, a son, Fyodor, was born, from the second, Natalya Naryshkina, sons Peter and Ivan, and daughter Sophia.

During his reign, Alexei Mikhailovich carried out moderate reforms, and also carried out church reform and urban reform. An important act was the publication of the Council Code of 1649. It was a set of laws on all issues from economy to government system(autocracy).

The most important part were the articles “On the Honor of the Sovereign”. No one could encroach on the power of the tsar, but the tsar had to consult with the boyars. The punishment for an attempt on the life of the sovereign “by word and deed” was established - the death penalty.

Chapters devoted to the peasant issue - "The Court of Peasants." Serfdom was formalized; peasants were the property of the owner and could be bought and sold. The judge of the serfs was their landowner. The serf peasant had only one right to complain to the sovereign.

According to the chapter “On Estates”, estates were allowed to be inherited; they could not deprive a nobleman of his estate, i.e. the role of the nobility increased.

Church reform

Before Alexei Mikhailovich, the church was independent of the state. The king subordinated the church to the state through the following measures:

• the church began to pay taxes to the state, i.e. was deprived of financial privileges;
• the king became the judge over the church;
• monasteries were deprived of the right to buy land.

He proposed his own reform: to cross yourself not with two fingers, but with three; bow from the waist in church. This caused discontent among part of the clergy and secular nobility. A church schism occurred, and a movement of Old Believers appeared, headed by Archpriest Avaakum.

Alexei Mikhailovich managed to break the church and subjugate it to himself. In 1666, Patriarch Nikon was deprived of his rank and imprisoned in a monastery prison, and Archpriest Avaakum was defrocked and cursed at a church council. After this, brutal persecution of the Old Believers began.

Urban reform

The townspeople were recognized as a special, independent class, but they were attached to the cities. The rights of townspeople to trade were protected: the peasant had to sell his products wholesale to the townspeople, and the townspeople could sell at retail.

At the end of the 17th century, after the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, a leapfrog began on the throne, because. he had three sons and a daughter. In 1676, his eldest son, 14-year-old Fyodor, ascended the throne, but he was sick, could not walk independently, and power was in the hands of his relatives on his mother’s side. In 1682, Fyodor died, and during the childhood of Ivan and Peter, Princess Sophia began to rule. She ruled until 1689 and managed to accomplish a lot of useful things:

• gave freedom to cities;
• realized the need to break through to the sea to develop trade, for this purpose two (admittedly unsuccessful) Crimean campaigns were undertaken, in 1687 and 1689.

Sophia tried to seize all power, but the 17-year-old king was already ready to take over the power.

Results

So, the 17th century is not only a “”, troubled century, but also a century of contradictions. In the Russian economy, the feudal structure occupied a dominant position, and at the same time, the capitalist structure of the economy emerged. Despite the fact that the situation of the people was extremely difficult, serfdom was formalized, nevertheless, it was the people who could help one or another contender to the Russian throne become king, believe him and follow him.

Time of Troubles. The 17th century brought numerous trials to Russia and its statehood. After the death of Ivan the Terrible in 1584, the weak and sickly Fyodor Ivanovich (1584-1598) became his heir and tsar.

A struggle for power within the country began. This situation caused not only internal contradictions, but also intensified attempts external forces to eliminate the state independence of Russia. For almost the entire century, she had to fight off the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden, and raids Crimean Tatars- vassals of the Ottoman Empire, to resist the Catholic Church, which sought to turn Russia away from Orthodoxy.

At the beginning of the 17th century. Russia went through a period called the Time of Troubles. XVII century marked the beginning of the peasant wars; This century marks the revolt of cities, the famous case of Patriarch Nikon and the schism Orthodox Church. Therefore, this century V.O. Klyuchevsky called it rebellious.

The Time of Troubles covers 1598-1613. Over the years, the Tsar's brother-in-law Boris Godunov (1598-1605), Fyodor Godunov (from April to June 1605), False Dmitry I (June 1605 - May 1606), Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610), False Dmitry II ( 1607-1610), Seven Boyars (1610-1613).

Boris Godunov won the difficult struggle for the throne between representatives of the highest nobility and was the first Russian Tsar to receive the throne not by inheritance, but by election at the Zemsky Sobor. During his short reign, he pursued a peaceful foreign policy, resolving controversial issues with Poland and Sweden for 20 years; encouraged economic and cultural ties with Western Europe.

Under him, Russia advanced into Siberia, finally defeating Kuchum. In 1601-1603 Russia was hit by a “great famine” caused by crop failures. Godunov took certain measures to organize public works, allowed slaves to leave their masters, and distributed bread from state storage facilities to the hungry.

However, the situation could not be improved. The relationship between the authorities and the peasants was aggravated by the annulment in 1603 of the law on the temporary restoration of St. George's Day, which meant the strengthening of serfdom. The discontent of the masses resulted in an uprising of serfs, which was led by Cotton Crookedfoot. Many historians consider this uprising to be the beginning Peasant War.

The highest stage of the Peasant War at the beginning of the 17th century. (1606-1607) there was an uprising of Ivan Bolotnikov, in which slaves, peasants, townspeople, archers, Cossacks, as well as the nobles who joined them, took part. The war engulfed the South-West and South of Russia (about 70 cities), the Lower and Middle Volga regions. The rebels defeated the troops of Vasily Shuisky (the new Russian Tsar) near Kromy, Yelets, on the Ugra and Lopasnya rivers, etc.

In October-December 1606, the rebels besieged Moscow, but due to disagreements and betrayal of the nobles, they were defeated and retreated to Kaluga, and then to Tula. In the summer and autumn of 1607, together with the detachments of the slave Ilya Gorchakov (Ileika Muromets, ?–ca. 1608), the rebels fought near Tula. The siege of Tula lasted four months, after which the city was surrendered and the uprising was suppressed. Bolotnikov was exiled to Kargopol, blinded and drowned.

At such a critical moment, an attempt was made at Polish intervention. The ruling circles of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Catholic Church intended to dismember Russia and eliminate its state independence. In a hidden form, the intervention was expressed in support of False Dmitry I and False Dmitry II.

Open intervention under the leadership of Sigismund III began under Vasily Shuisky, when in September 1609 Smolensk was besieged and in 1610 a campaign against Moscow and its capture took place. By this time, Vasily Shuisky was overthrown by the nobles from the throne, and an interregnum began in Russia - the Seven Boyars.

The Boyar Duma made a deal with Polish interventionists and inclined to call for the Russian throne Polish king young Vladislav, a Catholic, which was a direct betrayal of the national interests of Russia. In addition, in the summer of 1610, a Swedish intervention began with the goal of separating Pskov, Novgorod, and the northwestern and northern Russian regions from Russia.

• End of the intervention. The fight for Smolensk
• Cathedral Code 1649 and the strengthening of autocracy
• Foreign policy
• Domestic political situation
• Economy of Russia in the 17th century.

M. B. Bulgakov

Vologda-Belozersk connections
in the first half of the 17th century //
Belozerye: Ist.-lit. alm. /
Belozer. history-art. museum, Vologda. state ped. Institute;
[Ch. ed. Yu. S. Vasiliev]. - Vologda: Rus, 1994. - Issue. 1.

This article is devoted to the little-studied problem of Vologda-Belozersky trade relations in the first half of the 17th century. The main sources for the work were the customs book of the city of Beloozero 1629/30. and customs book of Vologda 1634/35. Documents from the RGADA and the archives of the St. Petersburg branch of the Institute were also used Russian history RAS.

It is known that regional trade relations in medieval Russia were carried out through the activities of trading townspeople and county trading peasants (monastic and privately owned). Market contacts between neighboring regions were the most important link in the connection of a single all-Russian goods market. After the Time of Troubles of 1608 - 1618, when the Russian state was just beginning to recover from ruin, it was these contacts that contributed to the restoration and strengthening of the country's economy. In the 20s - 30s of the 17th century. The devastated cities were rebuilt and populated, townsmen's trades, crafts and trades were established. The latter began as intra-district ones, then grew into inter-regional ones and even went beyond the framework of internal trade. The revival and expansion of old traditional trade relations at the interregional level was facilitated by such factors as the stability of political power in the country, the return of fugitive residents to their hometowns, preferential government policies towards devastated cities and a fixed rate of taxation of the population (as a result of a scribal gross description of 20 - 30 's years). This process was also facilitated by convenient water and land routes of communication between neighboring cities. Thus, the more than 100-verst waterway from Beloozero to Vologda went along the Sheksna and Slavyanka rivers, Lake Slovenskoye, from there it was dragged to Lake Porozobitskoye and the Porozobitskoye River to Lake Kubenskoye, then by the rivers Sukhona and Vologda.

The Belozersky region and the city of Beloozero early acquired important trade importance for the Russian state thanks to its geographical location. “The place where the city of Belozersky and the monasteries adjacent to it stood, and the most important Kirillov between them, was remarkable as a “drag”. The waters of the Volga, Dvina and Onega river basins converged on it.” At this crossroads of waterways, trade was carried out between the central and northwestern regions of the country. It is no coincidence that the two oldest statutory customs charters (1497 and 1551), repeatedly used by historians to characterize the internal trade of Russia in the 15th - 16th centuries, refer to the city of Beloozero.

Being located on such important internal trade routes, the city of Beloozero in the 16th century. played a big role in the foreign trade of the Russian state. Appeared in the middle of the 16th century. on the Murmansk coast, the Dutch traded with Moscow along the Onega river route (Onega, Sheksna, Volga). However, by the end of the 16th century. The importance of the city of Beloozero in foreign trade begins to decline. From now on the largest shopping center Northern Russia becomes the city of Vologda. Beloozero remains the center of trade for a vast region, without losing its significance as a connecting link between the south and north of the country and serving as a transshipment point for trade between the Baltic and White Seas through the cities of Novgorod, Vologda and Arkhangelsk. However, from that time on, we can say that the city of Beloozero and the region began to be drawn into the orbit of the Vologda market, replenishing its huge commodity mass natural resources region - fish, furs, livestock products.

According to the census of 1646, there were 262 tax households on Beloozero. Taking into account the white population (service people, “assigned” masons and brickmakers, clergymen, monastery janitors and coachmen), which is almost not reflected in the census and taken into account by us according to data from other sources, to mid-17th century century there were about 350 households in the city. The most widespread and developed industries in Belozersky Posad at the time under study were those associated with the extraction and processing of fish products, processing of animal raw materials, metal processing (blacksmithing and silversmithing) and wood. In the settlement, by 1645, there were 58 “living” shops in eight shopping rows (three fish, meat, salt, Kalash, Moscatel and large). The revival and development of commercial life in the city by the middle of the 17th century is evidenced by the figures of customs duties. If in 1618 - 1619 the customs duty amounted to more than 230 rubles, then in 1650 - 1651 it was already more than 477 rubles.

If Beloozero was an ordinary small city of the Russian North, then Vologda was one of the largest cities Russia. Since the 16th century, regular trade relations between Russia and Russia have been carried out through Vologda. outside world- with England, Holland and other countries Western Europe. The thousand-mile waterway from Vologda to Arkhangelsk began with the Vologda River, then went along the Sukhona River and ended with the Northern Dvina. The land route from Vologda to Moscow went through Yaroslavl, Rostov the Great and Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. Vologda was also connected by a convenient waterway with Sol Vychegda and Yarensky on Vychegda, where the journey to Siberia began.

The predominantly transit nature of Vologda trade contributed to the development of crafts and trades related to river navigation in the city. Particularly prominent were blacksmithing (production of nails, staples and other metal products) and rope-spinning production. The city has also long developed the production of wooden utensils, bricks, various leathers and leather products, soap, and candles.

Vologda was also the center of church ideology - in the city there was the residence of the Vologda bishop (in the St. Sophia Cathedral), who exercised spiritual governance over the vast region. The bishop had a large retinue of clergy and service personnel (servants, cooks, grooms, icon painters, etc.). According to the scribe book of 1627 - 1628, in Vologda there were 392 townsman households, and together with white local households - 1010 households. At the same time, the city had 340 trading establishments (shops, stalls, barns, benches), which were distributed across 14 shopping rows in the city and in the suburbs. In the city there were farmsteads of monasteries and foreign merchants, where various goods intended for sale were stored. By the middle of the 17th century. The city's population increased to 1,234 townspeople's households, and with the white population - to 1,772 households. The restoration and development of the commercial and industrial life of Vologda is evidenced by the customs duty figures. If in 1626 customs duties (together with wort, kvass, bath and float taxes) amounted to about 1153 rubles, then in 1641 - already about 10 thousand rubles.

As already noted, the strongest and most permanent trade and fishing ties were primarily among neighboring cities. We will begin the analysis of market contacts between Vologda residents and Belozersk residents with the trading activities of Belozero residents in Vologda. Traders leaving Beloozero were given a “pass memory” at the customs office, which is evidence of payment of customs duties “on departure.” So, in 1645, the Belozersk townsman (hereinafter - p.ch.) Ivan Melentyev's son (hereinafter - p.) Babin, who was traveling to Vologda, was issued such a “pass memory”, sealed with the signature of the Belozersk customs head - “7153 On the 9th day of March, at the outpost of the customs customer on Voloka Slovensky, Ivan Melentyev was allowed to pass on 4 carts of iron, and a cart of lard, and a cart of begging, and a cart sharpened, and on the same carts of measures.” The customs book of Vologda from 1634 - 1635, despite the fact that it was preserved with the loss of individual sheets for only six months (from September to the end of February 143), still gives an idea of ​​​​the presence of Belozersk residents on the Vologda market. In total, the book records 42 merchants from the city of Beloozero and 11 merchants from Belozersky district. This number also included Belozersk residents who showed up without goods. Unfortunately, the book contains only fragmentary information about social status traders. In one case, it was noted that the Belozersk trader was a mason. It is said about two merchants from Belozersky district that they are peasants of the Kirillov Monastery from the village. Krokhino.

Mostly Belozersk residents “showed” their goods for sale in Vologda, and only a few of them “showed” money for the purchase of goods. All traders at the Vologda customs were charged various duties, the number of which, according to the Vologda customs book, amounted to more than 20 items. Belozersky traders did not pay all duties, but many of them, for example, such as living and thermal, note and “on paper”, ruble and zamytny, turning, svalny, anbarshchina, guard, tethered and weight. Duties depended on the type of goods, on its price, on the method of its delivery (ship, boat, cart), on the length of stay of the merchant and his goods at the Gostiny Dvor, etc. The merchant could pay duties immediately upon arrival in the city or before departure after selling their goods, about which a corresponding note was made in the customs book. As a rule, Belozersk traders who had more than one cart (sleigh) were accompanied by hired cab drivers, for whom they also paid some duties (thermal, living).

In the stands for sale (“for import”), Belozersk traders presented traditional Belozersk goods depending on the season. Thus, in the fall (September-November) they presented “livestock” - cows and bulls, in the winter (December-February) fresh lake catch fish of ten types (ruff, mni, moth, perch, smelt, sorogo, pike-perch, tarabara, chesh, pike), salted barrel fish, fishing tackle - merezh, open and rod iron, frozen beef and lamb carcasses, raw lard , skins and furs. It is these products that are constantly and large quantities were exported from Beloozero by local and nonresident traders to nearby and more distant points. Belozersk residents brought dozens of cattle to Vologda. Thus, on September 3, 1634, the Belozersk resident Osip Bogdanov presented 77 animals for sale - cows and bulls, and on September 4, 1634, the townspeople Bogdan Kokin and Grigory Semenov together presented 82 animals for sale. In total, six townsman traders brought 226 heads of cattle and 10 rams with a total value of 452 rubles to the Vologda market. In 47 appearances, 37 Belozersk townspeople showed 65.5 carts of fresh lake fish of various varieties (almost a thousand poods for 330 rubles), 26 barrels of salted fish, 180 merezh, 2980 open iron "large, medium and small hands" for 400 rubles ., 6 carts (120 items) of rod iron, 26 grinders, 11 beef and lamb carcasses, 61 items of raw lard, 138 raw cowhide and horse skins (large and small), 130 sheepskins, 295 hare skins, 279 squirrels, 42 minks, 19 cats, 6 foxes and nedolis, 3 bear skins, 3 wolf skins, 2 ermine and one wolverine.

In addition to this selling Belozersk goods, Tikhon Druzhinin recorded 2 quarters of rye and a quarter of barley brought to Vologda by Belozersk posad traders, and Timofey Grigoriev had a cartload of wheat and a cartload of wheat flour. For Eremey Fomin, 5 rubles were recorded in turnout. money for the purchase of goods and two empty sleighs for transporting his goods or for renting out, and Pervov Kalinin had 16 rubles in three appearances. under the goods.

Belozersk residents also made appearances while traveling past the city of Vologda. Thus, on February 17, 1635, Yakov Maslov “revealed” a circle of wax, 40 pairs of mittens, two pairs of boots, 30 caps, half an ounce of silk for the sleigh ride, and Ivan Okinin, in four appearances, brought 7 carts of fresh fish, 10 barrels of rendered lard , 4 halves of cloth Kostryshev, 6 letchins, 4 bumazei and 100 squirrels. Obviously, these traders carried their goods further north to Totma or Ustyug Veliky.

The peasants of the Belozersky district also brought large and small cattle to Vologda - a total of 45 animals and sheep for 93 rubles, brought fresh caught fish of all varieties - a total of 20 carts (300 items) for 105 rubles, raw cowhide and horse skins (35 pcs.), sheepskins (7 pcs.), rod iron - 60 items for 25 rubles, wooden spoons in the amount of 3500 pcs. (of which 450 pieces “with bones”) for 12 rubles, bread (rye and wheat) for 11 carts and hemp (1 cart).

In total, Belozersk traders - townspeople and peasants - brought 281 heads of large and small cattle to Vologda for 555 rubles, brought 86.5 cartloads of fresh lake fish (almost 1300 p. for 432.5 rubles), 13 cartloads of bread , 1 cart of flour, more than 180 items of rod iron for 75 rubles, 175 raw cowhide and horse hides for 120 rubles. and 137 sheepskins. Other goods were brought either by the townspeople (iron, grinders, furs), or by peasants (wooden spoons, hemp).

The most active of the townsman traders in the six months under study were Pyotr Grigoriev - he had 7 carts of fresh fish and leather in three warehouses (for a total of 32 rubles) and Filat Ermolin - he also had 6 sleighs in three warehouses - owing iron, hems, leather , sheepskins, furs - only 7 3 rubles. The rest of the townspeople's merchants made 1-2 appearances during this time.

Peasants from During this time, Krokhino Kirillov Monastery Yakov Filippov and Moses Ivanov each “showed” fresh fish and skins for sale in Vologda three times, and the peasant Zhdan Ivanov “showed” his goods four times (three times wheat and once hemp and raw skins). All of the named Belozersk residents were professional merchants-buyers who themselves carried out trading operations. Besides them, there were also merchants for whom less wealthy buyers “worked.” So, at the station of Stepan Chepyzhnikov, the station was Leonty Petrov, who brought his goods - fish and skins - for sale to Vologda. Another Belozersk resident, Bogdan Leontyev, “worked” for two townsman merchants at once - Mikhail Leontyev and Grigory Podshchipaev. In Vologda he traded in “middle-class iron” from these buyer-entrepreneurs, who were considered “the best people” in Beloozero. From another source it follows that the mentioned Stepan Chepyzhnikov also had other sales agents. So, in the same 1635 (in the second half of the year), the Belozer resident Druzhina Savvin s. went from him to Vologda with raw skins to trade. Turzakov. In addition to the fact of the stratification of Belozersk entrepreneurs, these data also indicate the orientation of some traders specifically towards trading activities in Vologda. This is evidenced both by data from the Vologda customs book and other sources. So, in 1616, Belozersky resident Vasily Klementyev s. went to Vologda to trade. Dyakonov, from 1632 to 1638 in Vologda the Belozerst people Ivan Melentyev conducted a joint trade mainly in iron. Babin and Pyotr Tarasov, in 1649 - p. ch. Nikita Ankudinov p. Maleev asked in his petition for a postponement of the court case so that he could “go with a friend to Vologda for a market.”

It is clear that the surviving part of the Vologda customs book does not give a complete picture of the true number of Belozersk traders in the Vologda market. The Vologda customs office also kept other books recording the sale of salt, horses, hay, firewood and other goods, the sellers or buyers of which were, of course, Belozersk residents. Unfortunately, the sources that have reached us do not make it possible to establish what goods Belozersk residents purchased in Vologda, having sold their goods there. According to the Belozersk customs book of 1629 - 1630, Belozersk residents, who specialized in trading activities on the Vologda market, brought from there wax, mosquito products, mirrors, various fabrics, tanned leather, boots, stockings, salt, flax and hops. Let us also note that Belozersk residents also visited the Vologda district. So, in 1616, the townspeople Foka Pelevin, Pankrat Burdukov and Ivan Zonin bought 4 buckets of wine each in the Vologda district “not for sale, but for themselves.”

Trading profits consisted of the difference in the price of goods in Beloozero and Vologda and the speed of trade turnover. Transport and duty costs were recouped by the resulting profits, which were also used to expand trade turnover.

Constant mass demand in Vologda for Belozersk fish, live and killed cattle, lard, raw leather, sheepskins, iron from the populous local population, as well as from Vologda transit residents (non-resident traders and their agents, working people, pilgrims, clerks) is stable defined and more high level prices for these goods compared to those from Belozersk. Thus, fresh caught fish in the studied time on Beloozero cost about 1 ruble. for a cart (15 p.), and in Vologda this cart of fish was sold for 3 - 5 rubles, salted fish in a barrel on Beloozero cost 22 alt, for 1 barrel (6 p.), and in Vologda it cost about 3 rubles. per barrel, on Beloozero a live cow cost 1-1.5 rubles, and on a Vologda melon - 2 rubles, on Beloozero 1 pound of raw beef lard was valued at 13 a. 5 d., and in Vologda - 56 kopecks, on Beloozero a cart of rod iron (20 poods) cost about 6 rubles, and on the Vologda market - about 8 rubles. etc. This situation invariably attracted representatives of Belozersk trading capital to the Vologda market and determined the seasonal assortment of imports.

The trade activities of the Vologda residents in the late 20s of the 17th century on Beloozero are illustrated by the Belozersk customs book of the 1629-1630s, preserved for a full year without text defects. It records the “appearances” of 21 traders from the city of Vologda (of which one is a Vologda coachman). Posad merchants list the following goods for sale in four supply areas: church wine (4 buckets), wooden saltboxes (200 pcs.) - Ivan Korniliev and Ivan Markov; 90 dyes and a small amount of wax, silk, pepper and thyme (a mixture of incense and wax) - from Bogdan Semenov p. Kurochkina; three furs of salt - from Zhdan Kostousov. In addition, Vologda resident Mikhail Vorobyov, who was at that time a tavern head in Beloozero, together with Beloozero resident Osip Okinin, sold 7 pounds of honey to Beloozero resident Fedor Skvortsov. The data presented confirm the observation of V.S. Barashkova that the Vologda residents at the beginning of the 17th century delivered mainly imported goods of Western and eastern origin. As we can see, this product was supplemented by traditional Vologda market items: church wine, wax, honey, wooden utensils, tanned leather and salt.

In eight appearances on Beloozero, Vologda residents - townspeople - presented money to buy fish, merezh and iron - a total of 10 people for 70 rubles. (of these, they made three deposits of money together: Semyon and Druzhina Gavrilov showed 10 rubles for measurements; Rodion Vorobyov and a friend who is not named, showed 40 rubles to buy fish; blacksmiths Erema Emelyanov and Foma Ivanov showed 8 rubles. for the purchase of iron). From these data it follows that some Vologda artisans and traders did not wait for Beloozero goods to be brought to Vologda, but they themselves came to Beloozero for it and bought it at a “cheap price.”

Without money, 2 Vologda residents and 2 pedestrians came to Beloozero on horseback (one of the pedestrians was a Vologda coachman). It is possible that they arrived in the city to offer their services - to be hired to transport goods or to do some kind of auxiliary work.

Three appearances of Vologda residents were recorded when traveling past the city - Ivan Nikitin, who drove with two carts of wood chips, Savva Astafiev with three carts of garlic, and Savva Antsiferov in May 1635, who rode “in a third boat with single-row cloth.”

Trading peasants of the Vologda district visited Beloozero more often than townspeople-Vologda traders. Thus, the book recorded 44 “appearances” of 31 peasants. They brought bread (rye and oats) - a total of 23 cartloads (460 poods). The peasant of the Ukhtyug volost, Alexey Evtikheev, “showed up” 7 carts of bread (rye) for sale in four appearances, and the peasant of the Syamsk volost from the village. Karacheva twice brought rye for sale to Beloozero (3 cartloads). The rest of the peasants brought their grain once, mainly in November-March along the winter route. In six appearances for delivery, peasants presented fish (moths and ruffs), which they purchased on Beloozero with “revealed” money, paying 35 rubles for it. 8 people from the Syamskaya and Kubenskaya volosts from the villages of Novy, Ugly and Ivanovskoye (both monastery and landowner peasants) took part in the transportation of fish. 10 appearances of nine peasants, mainly from the Kubenskaya volost, were recorded on the journey past the city, who brought 51 carts (1020 poods) rod iron, and one peasant from the Kubensky volost, Ivan Ipatyev, in four appearances, transported 23 carts (460 pounds) of rod iron past the city. The direction of movement is not indicated, but, obviously, they were transporting iron from Belozersky district for sale in Vologda. The numerical predominance of trading peasants (mainly from the volosts of the Vologda district closest to Beloozero) over the townspeople's traders at the Beloozersk market was determined both by the convenience of communication and the lack of competition from the Vologda residents - the townspeople's people, who were primarily engaged in repurchasing goods in Vologda itself.

At the Belozersk customs, traders were also charged duties, but there were fewer of them than in Vologda: turnout, golovshchina, living room, dump, weight, measured, horn, wool, export, import, travel and ruble (the latter was mentioned very rarely, perhaps this general collective name for duty).

Among the examples of trading activities of Vologda residents in Belozersky Posad and in the area, we note the presence in Beloozero in 1620 of the shop and farmstead of the Vologda merchant Yakov Pinaev. In November 1641, Belozerets resident Ivan Semenov p. Loktev, through loan bondage, borrowed 26 rubles from the Vologda merchant Parfen Akishev at the Kirillov Monastery (apparently at the Vvedenskaya Monastery Fair, which took place on November 21). money with the obligation to pay off the debt “before Cyril’s memory,” that is, until June 9, when the Cyril Fair was held in the monastery. However, Ivan Loktev did not pay the money on time, and when one of his “guarantees” Zakhar Babin went to trade in Vologda in the fall of 1642, he had to pay off Ivan Loktev’s debt to Parfen the lender.

In 1647, the Beloozero residents - the town blacksmiths Voin and Pyatoya Fedorov, children of Chmutov, and three more Beloozero residents - each took bondage on Beloozero from the Vologda resident Denis Ievlev. Matalyndina 27 rub. From these data it is clear that Vologda residents visited not only Belozersky Posad, but also visited fairs and auctions in the Belozersky district. The degree of wealth of Vologda merchants is evidenced by the facts when they acted as lenders to the townspeople of the city of Beloozero.

A study of the trading activities of Vologda residents in Belozersky Posad shows that the city of Beloozero, which lay aside the most important trade axis of the Russian state - Moscow - Yaroslavl - Vologda - Veliky Ustyug - Arkhangelsk, was not included in the mandatory sphere of market interests of the Vologda merchants. Market contacts with Beloozero and its surroundings were carried out mainly by a few small and medium-sized representatives of the trading capital of the city of Vologda and peasants of the Vologda district. The latter concentrated on the grain trade. All this led to the fact that the implementation of trade relations between Beloozero and Vologda rested with Beloozero traders, mainly from among the townspeople. Such a one-sided order of connections was beneficial to both Beloozero and Vologda residents and naturally fit into the interregional market infrastructure. The inclusion of Beloozero local economic resources into the orbit of Vologda trade was a concrete expression of Beloozero’s participation in the developing single commodity market of the country. In this regard, the fact of the formation of the “fifth money” of the 12 “best” Belozersk trading people in Vologda together with the Vologda residents in 1650 is indicative. The orientation of Belozersk traders towards the Vologda market served as a reliable guarantee against economic troubles - “lack of industry” - and determined their direct participation in the economic life of the region.

NOTES

1. RGADA. F. 396. Books of the Armory Chamber. Book 1191.

2. Customs book of the city of Vologda 1634 - 1635. Vol. I - III. Compiler and author of the introduction E.B. Frantsuzova. M., 1983.

3. Platonov S.F. Essays on the history of the Time of Troubles in the Moscow State of the 16th - 17th centuries. (Experience in studying the social system and class relations in Time of Troubles). M., 1937. P. 25.

4. AAEL.1. St. Petersburg 1841. No. 134 and Stroev Archive. T. I. M., 1915, No. 68. (Certificate 1497); AAE. T. I, No. 230 and Stroev Archive, T. I, No. 185. (Certificate of 1551).

5. Osminsky T.I. Our region in the history of the USSR. Vologda, 1965. P. 18.

6. RGADA. F. 137. Boyar and city books, Galich. Book 12. L. 234.

7. Information about the white population of the city is taken from voivodeship reports and various “lists”. RGADA. F. 210. Discharge order. Novgorod table, No. 61. L. 19; right there. F. 1 107. Belozersk orderly hut, No. 1 123. Ill. 7-8; ibid., No. 887.ll. 1-7; F. 396. Columns of the Armory Chamber, N4175 1. Al. 117, 120, 151; Archive of St. Petersburg OIRI RAS. F. 194. Belozersk orderly hut, map. 3. D. 18. L. 8.

8. Bulgakov M.B. All-Russian market relations of the city of Beloozero in the 17th century // History of the USSR, 1974. No. 3. pp. 154-155.

9. Bulgakov M.B. Right there. P. 1 55.

10. RGADA. F. 396. Stlb. 39590. L. 39; right there. F. 137, Galich, Book. 7. L.166.

11. Bakhrushin S. V. Scientific works. T. I. M., 1952. S. 70-72, 77-78; Tikhomirov M. N. Russia in the 16th century. M., 1 962. pp. 242-245.

12. Tatishchev V.N. Selected works on the geography of Russia. M., 1950. P. 85.

13. Mertsalov A.E. Essay on the city of Vologda based on the scribe book of 1627. Vologda collection. T. V. Vologda, 1887. pp. 33-38, 45-46.

14. Vodarsky Ya.E. The number and distribution of the townspeople population in Russia in the second half of the 17th century. // Cities of feudal Russia. M., 1966. P. 386.

15. RGADA. F. 396. Stlb. 40258. Ll. 30-31; Stashevsky E.D. Pyatina 142 and commercial and industrial centers of the Moscow State. ZhMN P-1912. No. 5. P. 81.

16. RGADA. F. 1107. N1120. L. 2.

17. Bulgakov M.B. Fish market of Beloozero in the 17th century (On the development of regional trade relations) // Problems national history. M., 1973. P. 42; Him. All-Russian market relations... P. 157-1 58; Barashkova V.S. Trade relations of the Belozersky region in the 16th - early years. XVII centuries // Questions of the history of the economy and population of Russia in the 17th century. M., 1974. S. 26-28

18. Customs book of the city of Vologda. pp. 28-29. Below are links to this book without page references.

19. According to our calculations, the total amount of money for plow and rod iron brought for sale by Belozersk residents (posads and peasants) to Vologda is even slightly higher than according to M. Ya. Volkov’s calculations - for us by 475 rubles, for M. Ya. Volkova - 420 rub. (see Volkov M. Ya. Crafts of peasants of Belozersky district early XVIII V. // Problems of historical geography of Russia. Vol. II. Formation economic regions Russia. M., 1982. P. 43).

20. RGADA. F. 1 107. No. 670. L. 6.

21. Ibid. No. 163. L. 1; No. 643. L. 2-4; No. 1 173. L. 9.

22. Customs book of the city of Vologda... Vol. 1. Introduction. S. 8.

23. RGADA. F. 1599. Belozersky fish yard. No. 185. L. 2.

24. RGADA. F. 1441. Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery. No. 232. L. 31; right there. F. 1107. No. 151. L. 21; No. 525. L. 17; also see the mentioned Belozersky and Vologda customs books and Suvorov N.I. On prices for various living needs in Vologda in the 17th - 18th centuries. Vologda, 1863.

25. Barashkova V. S. Trade relations of the Belozersky region... P. 28.

26. RGADA. F. 1599. No. 165. L. 7.

27. Archive of St. Petersburg OIRI RAS. F. 194. Map. 6. D. 34. L. 11.

28. Ibid. Kart. 7. D. 55. L. 1.

29. RGADA. F. 210. Novgorod table. No. 61. L. 39.

The 17th century in Russian history is, first of all, the beginning of the three-hundred-year reign of the Romanov dynasty, which replaced the Moscow Rurik dynasty.
This period began in the midst of a severe political, social and economic crisis. Ivan IV left behind a weakened and impoverished country, and the direct heir Fyodor and Tsarevich Dmitry could not accept the burden of rule, so the boyars took over the actual management of the country. Boris Godunov especially stood out among them, who, through intrigue and manipulation, got rid of all candidates for the throne, and after the tragic death of Tsarevich Dmitry, he reigned alone. This is how the history of the Rurik dynasty ended.

The reign of Boris Godunov was characterized by both positive and negative aspects. The positive ones include reform activities, bringing a certain calm to the public environment, attempts to end the boyar-noble wars and achieve relative external peace. At the same time, his reign saw some of the most difficult times in the entire history of Russia: a severe economic crisis, numerous natural disasters and drought, leading to widespread famine. The exhausted people begin to blame the “damned” king for the disasters.

Against this background, the Polish monarch Sigismund III, in exchange for a promise to bring the country under the protection of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, helps the self-proclaimed “miracle survivor” Tsarevich Dmitry ascend the throne. But later a rebellion breaks out and False Dmitry is killed, and the Polish subject, Marina Mniszech, who, according to the agreement, was married to the impostor, remains the “royal widow.” Soon another impostor appears in Moscow, posing as Dmitry. The Polish woman also recognizes him, but soon he is also killed. Marina herself, according to some sources, was killed along with her son by the “warren”, and according to others, she was imprisoned in prison by the boyars, who saw her as a political threat.

Then the influential boyar Vasily Shuisky took power into his hands - but he was overthrown and forcibly sent to a monastery.
Then power for some time belonged to the council of boyars, which was popularly remembered as the “seven boyars.”
Finally, the boyars decide to turn to the Polish kingdom for help. However, the Polish army is tricked into invading Moscow, leading to the formation of " people's militia", organized by Kuzma Minin and headed by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. The Polish intervention was repulsed, and Mikhail Romanov was elected to the throne.

After Michael's accession, peace reigned in the country. Tax cuts took place, production appeared, and the country gradually developed.
Mikhail’s son, Alexey, was nicknamed “The Quietest.” His reign, in particular, is remembered church reforms, thanks to which the church was actually subordinated to the autocratic king. However, at the same time, the so-called The church schism, headed by Patriarch Nikon, introduced a number of reforms into the existing spiritual practice, which caused a serious split in the clergy and contributed to the emergence of “Old Believers” (baptized with two fingers) who did not accept these reforms.

Subsequently, throughout the seventeenth century in Russia, the Old Believers were subjected to serious persecution, and Nikon was deprived of his rank and imprisoned.
After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, a new wave of political unrest began, which led to the accession of the daughter of Alexei the Quiet - Sophia, who managed to prove herself to be a fairly successful queen, however, in the meantime, Alexei's direct heir - Tsarevich Peter, had already grown up enough and was ready to take the reins of government myself.

At the turn of the new 16th century, France set foot with completely completed stages of unification. The state of France had the chance to acquire the contours of geographical significance, mainly due to the fact that it was annexed to the king's domain and the duchy of Burgundy, as well as the counties of Brittany and Provence. These geographical contours operated throughout the 16th century, and also affected the beginning of the 17th century. In terms of territorial borders and the number of residents, which at that time was about 15 million people, France was the largest and most powerful state throughout Europe. Thanks to the fact that the country has united, very favorable soil has been created for further development countries in terms of economics and politics.

At the beginning of the 16th century, France did not have proper monopoly sales markets for the manufactories that had arisen. The country was closed to a constant flow of new treasures that could be plundered in countries overseas. But nevertheless, France was constantly engaged in supplying the Spanish colonies and many others. Not the territory of America, precisely through trade routes Wool fabrics, various linens and canvases were sent to Spain. Already by the mid-16th century, French exports to American cities had become a major part of all foreign trade.

Interest in Levantine trade grew quite rapidly. It was here that the merchants of France from ancient times constantly competed with traders from Italy. France sought to seize eastern and Mediterranean markets in order to partially compensate for the lack of overseas markets. It was because of interests in trade in the Mediterranean that France began the Italian Wars, which lasted from 1494 to 1559. Another reason was the agreement with the Ottoman Empire. Thanks to the agreement concluded with the Sultan, France began to trade with the Ottoman Empire. Merchants from France brought to Ottoman Empire wool fabrics, canvases and various linens, and returned back with full holds of various spices, dried fruits and even cotton. Very huge capital was invested in Mediterranean trade. It was thanks to foreign trade, along with financial transactions, that the accumulation of capital became possible.

The development of French villages was practically not connected with the foreign trade market. Large feudal lords hindered development. They did not seek to develop these sales markets, because their capital was constantly replenished by peasant taxes.

The king was personally involved in the maintenance of all the nobles. In addition to the fact that he constantly gave them various alms and pensions, they also received profit from army service. It was the nobles who were the main support of power royal family. This class of people enjoyed their privileges as long as the king's power was consistently strong. At the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century, internecine wars constantly occurred among the nobles.

The nobles of France did not belong to unstable groups of people. They weren't reserved either. Throughout the 16th century, chivalry began to decline significantly. The ruling class gradually began to include nobles descended from the bourgeoisie. It consisted of the elite of the city community, who had either power or large financial capital.

The title of nobleman could be acquired for money along with the purchase of land. Rank and position in the bureaucracy came under strain. The noble nobility differed from the new one only in that the former served in the army, and thanks to this, had a number of different privileges, while the latter were deprived of this favor.