You have to communicate with him. Interpersonal communication occurs at the level of two people who enter into dialogue out of necessity and desire. If interpersonal communication lasts for some time, it leads to the emergence of relationships between the interlocutors. These relationships can be different: hostile, loving, friendly, etc. Understanding the psychology of building relationships, we can consider the psychology of communication.

The online magazine site notes that no person is able to avoid interpersonal relationships. It all starts with communication with parents who constantly care for and care for the baby. Then communication arises with other children and adults. Then educators and teachers appear. Then new friends and entire teams appear.

There is not a single person who does not have to communicate with other people. Any communication with another person can be called interpersonal. And the longer it lasts, the higher the chance of a relationship.

What is interpersonal communication?

A person inevitably faces the need to maintain interpersonal communication, which involves verbal contact with other people. Living in society, a person encounters others with whom he conducts short or long dialogues. However, if a person periodically encounters a specific individual, wishes to continue communication and contact with him, and have common activities, then a relationship arises.

Interpersonal relationships mean the interaction of people aimed at achieving certain goals. Interactions also arise in the group personal relationships. If at the level of the entire team people secretly achieve a common goal, then at the level of each person there is his own goal that he sets for himself, which is why he comes into contact with others.

Interpersonal relationships play an important role in the development of the entire society. If people did not unite and communicate, then there would be no civilized society. Perhaps people would not have existed long ago if not a single person felt the need to be liked, communicate, get closer and have contact with other people.

Interpersonal relationships become the most important in the study. The reason for this is that in the process of contact people interact, perform actions, and achieve certain goals. There are many nuances in this process. And also all people are familiar with such phenomena as scandals, betrayal, problems, which also occur at the level of two or more individuals.

• A scandal, quarrel, dispute is a clash of two or more opinions that contradict each other and do not agree.
• Betrayal is the use of another person's resources or trust to achieve a goal that is likely not approved by the person being used.
• Problems are disagreements, omissions, situations that imply dissatisfaction and disapproval of those involved.

There are so many options for how people will interact. If there are not many types of relationships, then the nature of each relationship will be unique. Relationships are built by two people who bring into the process their desires, interests, needs, habits, views, etc. Thus, to some extent, relationships may be similar, but problem solving and the essence of conflicts will differ in each specific case.

Interpersonal relationships and communication

Interpersonal relationships and communication itself are not formed just like that. People who participate in the process have certain needs and desires, which push them to create and maintain a certain type of relationship. Moreover, the relationship itself is a dynamic creation that is constantly changing, developing in some direction, giving something back to the participants and demanding something. If people maintain relationships through taking actions, then they last.

It should be understood that absolutely any relationship is destroyed at the moment when at least one of the two participants in the process ceases to pay attention and show interest in the contact. If he no longer does anything towards his partner, then the relationship begins to collapse, gradually fading away.

Interpersonal relationships face three challenges:

1. The first is interpersonal perception.
2. The second is man’s understanding of man.
3. Third, forming relationships and exerting psychological pressure.

Interpersonal communication is based on the following features:

1. Nationality, gender, age of a person.
2. Features of speech perception and reproduction.
3. Temperament, attitudes, worldview.
4. Health status.
5. Communication experience.
6. Professional and personal characteristics.
7. Goals, interests, desires.
8. Level of education and intellectual development.

Communication begins at the level of perception of the external characteristics of the interlocutor. At first, a person evaluates external data from the position of “like/dislike”, “interesting/not interesting”, “suitable for certain relationships/not suitable for the desired relationship.” Not only the appearance of the interlocutor is assessed, but also his clothes, accessories, smells, body movements, postures and facial expressions.

If communication begins, then people focus on each other’s gestures, voice, intonation, and spoken words. It is also important that the interlocutors understand the phrases addressed to each other. If the first understanding arises, then the communication continues, which further interests the interlocutors.

Then communication continues only at the level of how people understand each other. This happens as follows: in fact, people cannot know each other, since they have just met and do not yet have experience and ideas, however, they use their past experience of communicating with other people, trying to use their examples to attribute to each other certain qualities, motives of behavior and words

Communication becomes successful if people make correct assumptions and what is desired coincides with what is real. However, it becomes a little more difficult for people to communicate when they do not know how to react and act in situations that they have not previously encountered. Here they either try to get to know each other, tune in to a new mood, learn new things, or break up, interrupting communication.

If relationships arise between people, then they go through the stages of their development:

1. Origin.
2. Becoming.
3. Maturation.
4. Termination.

How quickly these stages pass depends on the people themselves. Typically, interpersonal relationships begin when both participants see benefits from continued contact with each other. If there is no benefit, then the relationship does not develop, but quickly ends.

Thus, in relationships, people resort to various ways of influencing each other with one goal - to achieve their goals. It should be noted that the goals of each person may coincide with the desires of the partner, or they may differ. If the goals are similar, then the relationship becomes long-lasting, since everyone sees the benefit of its continuation and development. However, if the partners have very different goals for each other, then the relationship may not develop and end quickly.

Psychology of Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication in psychology is the very first step towards the formation of relationships between people. Communication is an activity that people resort to at absolutely any stage in the development of their relationships.

In psychology, communication is understood as this type of interaction when people try to influence each other, change attitudes, gain approval, etc. Without influence (which in some circles is called manipulation) no relationship is possible. A person cannot interact with another person without trying to influence her decisions, thoughts, and actions. And this should be treated normally.

Psychologists can only study methods of manipulation in order to identify what they lead to and how to protect themselves from them if they harm the one they are trying to manipulate.

Communication problems arise at two levels:

1. At the level of motivations, desires, goals.
2. At the level of achieving desires and realizing motives.

Interpersonal communication among youth

IN adolescence people improve and begin to develop their communication skills with different groups of people. Interpersonal communication consists of more than just contact with peers. The teenager begins to develop a certain attitude towards different people.

The need to become an independent person is accompanied by irritability, intolerance, criticism, and non-acceptance of the unacceptable, which increases significantly.

Conflicts with peers in adolescents arise for the following reasons:

1. Bad manners.
2. Lack of productive communication skills.
3. Unwillingness to show respect to others.
4. Lack or unwillingness to feel compassion.

Interpersonal culture

In interpersonal communication, many different situations occur. To effectively get out of any situation, you need to be able to choose the right tone and words that will have an effect in a particular case. You should also have a wide range of communication skills to remain flexible.

Communication culture presupposes high level human development and his ability to be flexible during the process. Empathy is also included here when a person understands well the motives of others.

Bottom line

Communication between two people leads to the emergence of a relationship if the interlocutors show interest in each other, begin to get to know and understand each other, and also wish to continue contacts, since their personal goals can be realized at the expense of each other. Influencing in order to achieve one's goals is normal, since otherwise people have no other way to interact with each other.

Interpersonal relationships can be as varied and unpredictable as communication itself. It is worth noting that in addition to all the actions that people perform, communication plays the most important role. People pronounce words and express their attitude intonationally, through which their main interaction occurs. And after communication, actions are taken based on the influence that prevailed over them.

The quality of communication affects what the relationship will be like. Psychologists study two areas of a person’s life, providing services to improve relationships or communication with the goal of maximizing the achievement of their goals, not on the principle of “either I win or he wins,” but on the principle of “both win.”

Lesson 1

1 Interpersonal relationships and social roles

2 Social roles and social positions

3 Social norms and conditions for effective interaction

Lesson 2

1 Structure of communication: communicative, interactive, perceptual components

2 Verbal and non-verbal means of communication

3 The role of communication in the work of a manager

4Interaction in communication

Basic concepts on the topic

Communication- This is the process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the need for joint activities and consisting of the exchange of information, interaction and perception of a person by a person.

Social meaning communication lies in the fact that it acts as a way of transmitting forms of culture and social experience.

Psychological meaning communication is that during it the subjective, inner world of one person is revealed to another and a change occurs in the thoughts, feelings and behavior of interacting people.

Communication structure(according to G.M. Andreeva):

Communication side consists of the exchange of information between people. At the same time, information is not only transmitted, but also formed, clarified, and developed. The main goal of information exchange in communication is to develop a common meaning, a common point of view and agreement regarding various situations and problems.

Interactive side represents an exchange, not of information, but of actions in the process of organizing and implementing interaction between people. This side of communication can manifest itself in coordination of actions, distribution of functions, influence on the partner’s mood, behavior or beliefs.

Perceptual side - this is the process of partners’ perception of each other, their appearance and inner world. The effectiveness of perception (perception) is associated with socio-psychological observation, which allows one to capture his significant characteristics by the external manifestations of an individual and predict behavior.

Basic mechanisms social perception:

Identification(similarity) consists of trying to put oneself in the partner’s place. Close to identification is the mechanism of empathy. However, with empathy there is not a rational understanding of the problems of another person, but a desire to respond to them emotionally.

Reflection - This is the individual’s awareness of how he is perceived by his communication partner.

In the process of social perception, attitudes play an important role, leading to the following psychological effects:

Halo effect - when previously developed ideas about a person prevent one from seeing his real qualities.

Novelty effect when in a situation of perception of a familiar person new information about him turns out to be more significant.

Stereotyping effect - when the perceived person is related to one of famous people. Stereotyping simplifies the process of social perception, but, unfortunately, at the expense of distorting the real essence of the partner.

Communication functions:

Pragmatic function communication reflects its need-motivational reasons and is realized through the interaction of people in the process of joint activity. At the same time, communication itself is often the most important need.

Function of formation and development reflects the ability of communication to influence partners, developing and improving them in all respects. By communicating with other people, a person learns universal human experience, historically established social norms, values, knowledge and methods of activity, and is also formed as a person.

Confirmation function provides people with the opportunity to know, affirm and confirm themselves.

Function of uniting and separating people, on the one hand, by establishing contacts between them, facilitates the transfer of necessary information to each other and sets them up for the implementation of common goals, intentions, tasks, thereby connecting them into a single whole, and on the other hand, it can contribute to the differentiation and isolation of individuals in result of communication.

Organization and maintenance function interpersonal relationships serves the interests of establishing and maintaining fairly stable and productive connections, contacts and relationships between people in the interests of their joint activities.

Intrapersonal function communication is realized in a person’s communication with himself (through internal or external speech, completed according to the type of dialogue). Such communication can be considered as a universal way of human thinking.

Sides of communication - its specific characteristics, showing its unity and diversity:

Interpersonal side communication reflects a person’s interaction with his immediate environment: with other people and the communities with which he is connected in his life.

Cognitive side communication allows you to answer questions about who the interlocutor is, what kind of person he is, what can be expected from him, and many others related to the personality of the partner. It covers not only knowledge of another person, but also self-knowledge.

Communication and information The side of communication is the exchange between people of various ideas, ideas, interests, moods, feelings, attitudes, etc.

Emotive side communication is associated with the functioning of emotions and feelings, mood in personal contacts of partners. They manifest themselves in the expressive movements of the subjects of communication, their actions, deeds, and behavior.

Conative (behavioral) sides and communication serves the purpose of reconciling internal and external contradictions in the positions of partners. It provides a controlling influence on the individual in all life processes, reveals a person’s desire for certain values, expresses a person’s motivational forces, and regulates the relationships of partners in joint activities.

Social role- a model of human behavior, objectively specified by the social position of the individual in the system of social institutions, public and personal relations, i.e. behavior that is expected of a person occupying a certain status.

Social position- the place, position of an individual or group in the system of relations in society, determined by a number of specific characteristics and regulating the style of behavior.

Social norms- these are rules of behavior that regulate the relationships between people and their associations.

Main types of social norms:

Rules of law- these are generally binding, formally defined rules of behavior that are established or sanctioned, and are also protected by the state.

Moral standards(morality) - rules of behavior that, having developed in society, express people’s ideas about good and evil, justice and injustice, duty, honor, dignity. The effect of these norms is ensured by internal conviction, public opinion, and measures of social influence.

Norms of customs- these are rules of behavior that, having developed in society as a result of their repeated repetition, are followed by force of habit.

Norms of public organizations(corporate norms) are rules of behavior that are independently established by public organizations, enshrined in their charters (regulations, etc.), operate within their limits and are protected from violations by them through certain measures of social influence.

Among social norms there are: religious norms; political norms; aesthetic standards; organizational norms; cultural norms, etc.

Types of communication:

Verbal – non-verbal;

Contact – distant;

Direct – indirect;

Oral – written;

Dialogical - monological;

Interpersonal – mass;

Private – official (business);

Sincere is manipulative.

Each type of communication has its own characteristics. For example, the Code of Business Communication contains seven principles:

The principle of cooperation (your contribution should be such as is required by the jointly accepted direction of the conversation);

The principle of sufficiency of information (say no more and no less than is required at the moment);

Principle of information quality (don’t lie);

The principle of expediency (do not deviate from the topic, manage to find a solution);

Express your thoughts clearly and convincingly;

Know how to listen and understand the desired thought;

Know how to take into account individual characteristics interlocutor.

Stages of communication:

The emergence of a need for communication, as well as an intention to make contact;

Orientation to goals, in a communication situation;

Orientation in the partner’s personality;

Planning the content of communication (usually unconsciously);

Unconscious or conscious choice of means, phrases, behavior;

Perception and assessment of response, establishment feedback;

Adjusting the direction and style of communication.

Means of communication:

- language- ensuring mutual understanding between partners; the misunderstanding of each other that occurs often occurs due to the fact that the interlocutors attach different subjective meanings to the words used;

- intonation;

- facial expressions- movement of facial muscles expressing the internal state of mind;

- postures, distance, relative positions of partners;

- glances, “eye contact”;

- gestures.

Behavior strategies:

a) cooperation, which presupposes the maximum achievement by the participants of interaction of their goals;

b) rivalry, which involves focusing only on one’s own interests, without taking into account the interests of the partner;

c) compromise, which involves partial, intermediate (often temporary) achievement of partners’ goals for the sake of maintaining conditional equality and preserving relationships;

d) compliance, which involves sacrificing one’s own needs to achieve the partner’s goals;

e) avoidance, which involves avoiding contact, giving up the desire to achieve one’s goals in order to exclude the gain of another.

Interpersonal (human) relationships- a set of interactions between individuals who make up the social hierarchical ladder. Human relations are primarily based on the bonds that exist between members of society due to different types communication: primarily visual (or non-verbal communications, which include both appearance, and body movements, gestures), linguistic ( oral speech), affective, as well as languages ​​built as a result of the development of complex societies (economic, political, etc.).

Classification of interpersonal relationships:

Primary Relationships: those that are established between people as necessary in themselves.

Secondary relationships: those that originate in the need for assistance or some function that one person performs in relation to another.

Subjects of abstracts

1 Psychological barriers to communication in a team.

2 Techniques for creating optimal interpersonal relationships in a group.

3 Communication as a process of developing contacts between people.

Questions for self-control

1What is communication?

2What are the differences between the social meaning of communication and the psychological one?

3What is the structure of communication?

4What are the features of the communicative side of communication?

5What is the interactive side of communication?

6What is social perception?

7What are the basic mechanisms of social perception?

8What functions does communication perform?

9What are the aspects of communication and their features?

10 What are social norms? What are their types?

11 What are character traits certain types of communication?

12 What are the stages of communication?

13 What are the means of communication?

14 What does a behavior strategy include?

15 What are interpersonal relationships? What is their classification?

Literature

1 Andreeva, G.M. Social psychology: textbook for universities / G.M. Andreeva.- M.: Aspect-Press, 2001.- 376 p.

2 Vechorko, G.F. Fundamentals of psychology and pedagogy: answers to exam questions / G.F. Vechorko. – 4th ed., revised. and additional – Mn.: TetraSystem, 2010.-192 p.

3 Dyachenko, M.I. Brief psychological dictionary / M.I. Dyachenko, L.A. Kandybovich. - Mn.: Halton, 1998. - 399 p.

4 Obozov, N.N. Interpersonal relations / N.N. Obozov. - L.: Publishing house Leningrad University, 1979. - 160 p.

5 Modern psychological dictionary / ed. B.G. Meshcheryakova, V.P. Zinchenko. - SPb.: PRIME-EURO-ZNAK, 2006. - 490 p.

6 Stolyarenko, L.D. Fundamentals of Psychology / L.D. Stolyarenko. - 3rd ed., revised. and additional – Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1999. - 672 p.

7 Fomin, Yu.A. Psychology of business communication / Yu.A. Fomin. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - Mn.: Amalthea, 2003. - 350 p.

perceptual (mutual perception). Considered in the unity of these three sides, communication acts as a way of organizing joint activities and relationships between the people involved in it.

So, the multifaceted communication process has three sides. Let's look at the characteristics of each of them

First, a few words about the functions of communication at the individual level of human life. They are diverse, but usually there are three classes of these functions: information-communicative, regulatory-communicative and affective-communicative. And on the basis of this, three sides of communication are distinguished: as the exchange of information, as interpersonal interaction and as people’s understanding of each other.

The communicative side of communication is the transfer of information.

In the communication process, not only the “movement of information” occurs, but also the active exchange of it. The significance of information plays a special role for each participant in communication, provided that the information is not only accepted, but also understood and meaningful.

The nature of the exchange of information between people is determined by the fact that through a system of signs partners can influence each other. In other words, the exchange of such information necessarily involves influencing the partner.

Communicative influence as a result of information exchange is possible only when both participants have unified system coding.

In the conditions of human communication, completely specific communication barriers that are social and psychological in nature can arise. Differences may be social, political, religious, professional, etc.

The transmission of any information is possible only through signs, or more precisely, sign systems. Usually a distinction is made between verbal and non-verbal communication. Each of them forms its own sign system. Speech is a means of verbal communication. Speech is the activity of communication (expression, interaction, message) through language. Speech is a special and most perfect form of communication, characteristic only of humans.

So, speech is verbal communication, i.e. the process of communication using language. There are the following types of speech: external and internal. External speech is divided, in turn, into oral and written, and oral speech into monologue and dialogic. All types of speech closely interact with each other. When preparing for oral or written speech, there is a phase of internal speech pronunciation to oneself. This is inner speech.

External speech, as already mentioned, can be oral or written. Written speech refers to speech using written signs. Audible speech that is spoken by someone is called spoken speech.

Oral speech can be dialogical and monological. Dialogical speech is supported by mutual remarks of the interlocutors, also called colloquial speech. Monologue speech lasts long enough, is not interrupted by remarks from others and requires preliminary preparation.

As already noted, the transmission of any information is possible only through signs, sign systems. In the communicative process, verbal (speech is used as a sign system) and non-verbal communication (when various non-speech sign systems are used) are usually distinguished.

Verbal communication is the process of communicating using language; uses human speech as a sign system. Under the speech here

Modern Humanitarian University

natural sound language is understood.

Nonverbal communication is the emotional attitude that accompanies a verbal utterance; a system of signs that includes gestures, facial expressions, voice timbre, range, tonality, crying, laughter, and rate of speech.

Visual communication (“eye contact”) is a new area of ​​research. It has been proven that, like all non-verbal means, eye contact has the value of complementing verbal communication.

The interactive side of communication is the interaction of people through the organization of their joint activities, interpersonal interaction, i.e. a set of connections and mutual influences between people. Interpersonal interaction is a sequence of people’s reactions to each other’s actions unfolded over time.

So, the initial condition for successful communication is that the behavior of interacting people matches each other’s expectations. In some situations, antagonism of positions is revealed, reflecting the presence of mutually exclusive values, tasks and goals, which sometimes turns into mutual hostility - an interpersonal conflict arises. In joint activities, the causes of conflicts can be substantive business disagreements and personal interests. The cause of conflicts is also vague semantic barriers in communication that impede the establishment of interaction between those communicating. A semantic barrier in communication is a discrepancy in the meanings of the expressed demand, request, order for partners in communication, creating an obstacle to their mutual understanding and interaction. Therefore, in communication, an important role is played by the ability to put yourself in the place of the person you are communicating with, in other words, understanding the strategy and tactics of your partner’s behavior in the situation.

Psychological influence plays an important role in communication. Psychological impact is a structural unit, a component of communication. In essence, this is the penetration of one person (or group of persons) into the psyche of another person (or group of persons). The purpose and results of this penetration are change, restructuring of individual or group mental phenomena (views, relationships, attitudes, states, etc.). Psychological influence is by no means omnipotent, although under certain conditions it is possible to cause certain changes in the psyche of people, and through it, in their activities and behavior.

Friendship is a special form of communication between people as a stable individually selective system of relationships and interactions, characterized by mutual affection of the communicating, high degree satisfaction with communication with each other. The development of friendship involves following its unwritten code, which affirms the need for mutual understanding, frankness and openness, trust, active mutual assistance, mutual interest in the affairs of the other, and selflessness of feelings. Serious violations of the code of friendship lead either to its termination, or to the reduction of friendship to superficial, friendly relations, or even to the transformation into its opposite - enmity.

Ideal friendship is the deepest sincerity, complete mutual trust, reckless disclosure of one's intimate self. The value of friendship lies not only in complete self-disclosure, but also in unconditional acceptance of the other.

Thus, in order to understand the mechanism of interaction, it is necessary to find out how the intentions, motives, and attitudes of one individual “overlay” ideas about the partner, in other words, how the image of a communication partner is formed.

As already mentioned, interaction is impossible without mutual understanding. At the same time, it is very important how the communication partner is perceived. This process acts as an obligatory component of communication and can conditionally be called the perceptual side of communication. The perceptual side of communication is the perception of another person: his external signs, correlating it with the personal characteristics of the perceiving individual and interpreting his actions. It's not just about perception, but about knowing another person. In the most general terms, we can say that perceiving another person means perceiving his external signs, correlating them with the personal characteristics of the perceived individual and interpreting his actions on this basis. Comparing oneself with another is carried out, as it were, from two sides: each of the partners likens itself to the other.

The idea of ​​another person is closely related to the level of one’s own self-knowledge. This connection is twofold: on the one hand, the wealth of ideas about oneself determines the richness of ideas about another person, on the other hand, the more fully the other person is revealed, the wider the ideas about oneself become. Thus, a person becomes aware of himself through another person. Analysis of self-awareness through another person includes two sides - identification and reflection. Let's consider these mechanisms.

Identification is a way of understanding another person through conscious or unconscious assimilation of his characteristics to the characteristics of the subject himself. Identification acts as one of the mechanisms of cognition and understanding of another person.

Reflection is another mechanism for understanding another person. In psychology, reflection is understood as the acting individual’s awareness of how he himself is perceived by his communication partner.

Communication, as has been shown, cannot be reduced to the simple transfer of information. In order to be successful, it necessarily presupposes the presence of feedback - the subject receiving information about the results of the interaction.

Individual features of a person’s physical appearance (face, arms, shoulders), postures, gestures, intonations act as carriers of information that should be taken into account when communicating. The face of the interlocutor or listener is a particularly informative carrier of feedback signals.

The family is the first social group that actively influences the formation of the child’s personality. The peculiarities of relationships and communication between its members create a specific moral and psychological atmosphere in the family. The relationship between parents and children and the specifics of their communication, in which these relationships manifest themselves in the family, have a huge impact on the formation of the child’s personality.

A high level of mutual awareness of parents and children is one of the important prerequisites for their adequate understanding of each other’s personal characteristics, ensuring normal communication in the family. Mutual awareness of parents and children can be ensured only through the diversity of areas and topics of their communication.

The specifics of communication between parents and children not only shape their interpersonal relationships, but also have a huge impact on the development of children’s communication skills with other people.

1.2. Communication in groups and teams

A person as an individual is formed in a group and is a direct and indirect exponent of intragroup relations. A group is a community limited in size, separated from the social whole on the basis certain signs(the nature of the activity performed, social or class affiliation, structure, composition, etc.). How does a collective differ from a group? A team is a group where interpersonal relationships are mediated by the socially valuable and personally significant content of joint activities, and this is its main psychological difference from other groups.

An attempt was made to compare the inspiring influence on the personality of an unorganized group and an established team. And quite unexpectedly, it turned out that the inspiring influence of the opinions of randomly gathered people on an individual is manifested to a greater extent than the influence of the opinions of an organized collective to which the individual belongs.

But the paradoxical nature of this experimentally substantiated form is only apparent. Knowing well the team as a whole and many of its members, the individual consciously and selectively reacts to the opinions of everyone, focusing on the relationships and assessments that have developed in joint activities, on the values ​​that are accepted and affirmed by everyone. The state of an individual in a random, unorganized group, in conditions of a lack of information about the individuals who form it, contributes to an increase in suggestibility. Thus, if a person’s behavior in an unorganized, random group is determined solely by the place that he chooses for himself - most often intentionally, then in a team there is another specific possibility - collectivistic self-determination of the individual. A person selectively relates to the influences of one particular community, accepting one and rejecting another, depending on mediating factors - assessments, beliefs, ideals.

Collectivistic self-determination occurs when an individual’s behavior under conditions of specially organized group pressure is determined mainly by the goals and objectives of the group’s activities and stable value orientations.

In another area of ​​psychological research, a phenomenon called collectivistic identification was identified. This is a phenomenon of interpersonal connections, which presupposes such a motivation of relations towards a comrade as a member of a team, when the subject, based on high moral ideological principles, treats others as himself, and himself as everyone else in the team, when the opposition of “I” and “They” is sublated by the concept “We”.

Collectivistic integration equally implies a rejection of altruistic forgiveness and a selfish consumer attitude towards others. Humanity, concern for a comrade, as well as demandingness towards him are the norm of collectivist relationships. This creates a psychological climate favorable for the all-round harmonious development of the individual. A violation of the principles of collectivist integration is behavior in which an individual applies different moral norms to himself and others in the same or similar situation and bases his actions on the basis of similar norms.

As a result of active interaction with other members of the group, solving specific problems, the individual acquires his value orientations. Their assimilation also presupposes a kind of control over the individual, actually carried out by the group or prescribed by the individual in the group. Orientation to the values ​​of the group, to its opinion, forces the individual to identify a circle of people whose position and assessment are most significant for him. How should we designate this group of people within the collective, which the individual chooses in order to cope with their opinions, assessments, a group of people who acquire the status of preference for the subject? This group of people is usually referred to as a reference group.

A reference group is a group that somehow attracts a person, whose norms and values ​​he adheres to or seeks to adapt to, and of which he would willingly become a member. In understanding the reference group, the most important thing is the evaluation factor: the subject’s orientation towards evaluating his actions, his personal qualities, essential circumstances of the activity, etc. from the reference group. From the many people around him, an individual chooses those whom he endows with a special subjectively important quality for him - referentiality. In conditions of communication with his reference circle, a person, as a subject of cognition, becomes an object of self-knowledge, consciously or unconsciously identifying individuals who are able to evaluate him according to the parameters that he himself considers as the most important.

So, each person has his own reference group, whose requirements he certainly takes into account, whose opinion he is guided by. As a rule, this is not one group, but some combination of them. It is good if the requirements, expectations, interests, ideals and all other value orientations of all reference groups for a given individual more or less coincide or turn out to be close and, what is especially important, are associated with socially significant goals and ideals. If this is not the case, then a person belonging to two oppositely directed reference groups experiences a severe internal conflict.

The values ​​that form the deep foundation of the group’s socially significant activities also form the basis for intragroup preference and choice based on reference. The individual who scored maximum amount elections in referentometry, acts as the leader of this group.

A leader is a person for whom all other members of the group recognize the right to take responsible decisions that affect their interests and determine the direction and nature of the activities of the entire group. Thus, being the most authoritative person, the leader actually plays a central role in organizing joint activities and regulating relationships in the group.

Perhaps the most important characteristic of a leader is associated with selectivity, preference, which is given to him by group members, distinguishing him from everyone according to some characteristics that are subject to psychological study. What is the basis of this choice? It has been experimentally proven that everything here depends on the level of development of the group. The higher the group’s level of development, the greater the extent to which interpersonal relationships are mediated by the content and values ​​of joint social activity, the more likely it is that the emergence and stabilization of a leader in the group occurs as the implementation of precisely these relationships. Essentially, a leader is the most referent person for a group in relation to joint activities, a certain common average member of interpersonal relationships that influences the effectiveness of its activities.

TASKS FOR INDEPENDENT WORK

1. Create a logical diagram of the knowledge base for the course topic.

Introduction

Among the factors that shape personality, psychology distinguishes work, communication and cognition. Communication is a connection between people, during which mental contact occurs, manifested in the exchange of information, mutual influence, mutual experience, and mutual understanding. We can say that communication is aimed at establishing mental contact between people; its goal is to change relationships between people, establish mutual understanding, influence knowledge, opinions, relationships, feelings and other manifestations of personality orientation; means- various shapes personal expression. Contacts between people in communication are a necessary condition for the existence of an individual.

IN last years in science, along with the concept of “communication,” the concept of “communication” is used. In scientific publications one can find different understandings of the relationship between the concepts of “communication” and “communication”. In psychology, it is more correct to establish the following relationship between them. Communication is a broader concept; communication is a connection, interaction of two systems, during which a signal carrying information is transmitted from one system to another. For example, two electronic computers are connected by cable or radio. Each one works according to its own program. If they exchange information, we can say that there is communication between them. The dance of a bee, Signaling to other bees about the direction and distance to feed, is also communication. The pilot controls the plane. Human-machine communication emerges. Using instruments, the pilot determines the operating mode, serviceability of the main components, and flight conditions. Based on this data, management is carried out. However, in all the examples considered, there is no connection between people, no influence of one person on another. Because of this, they do not reflect the specifics of communication.

Communication is the exchange of information between people. A person can communicate with other people not only in direct contact. Watching a TV show, reading a book, perceiving works of art are also acts of communication. S. Obraztsov wrote: “A meeting with a bison in a Spanish cave evokes such excitement because it is a meeting not with an animal, but with a person who painted the bison. Meeting across millennia. And this meeting is always personal. Always a meeting of two.”

Thus, the concept of communication is narrower compared to the concept of communication. IN social psychology one can find a different understanding of the relationship between people (labor, economic, etc.), and communication is considered as a special case of communication associated with the exchange of information

Emphasizing the role of communication as a specific factor in the formation of the psyche, B.F. Lomov writes: “When we study the lifestyle of a particular individual, we cannot limit ourselves to analyzing only what and how he does, we must also examine with whom and how he communicates...”

Communication involves the transfer of information. The content of communication is scientific and everyday knowledge. In a history lesson, the teacher reports facts from the distant past of our Motherland, the student explains the Pythagorean theorem and Coulomb's law to his friend. Students - Red Pathfinders jointly search for documents, belongings of civilian and Patriotic Wars, they visit veterans together October revolution. What they find and learn, the interaction that arises and takes place is the content of communication.

Skills and abilities can be transferred through communication. The labor teacher tells and shows how to use metalwork tools and how to process metal with them. In a physical education lesson, the teacher develops motor skills in schoolchildren and thus teaches them to control their body.

The content of communication can be a person: his appearance, character traits, behavior, etc. We meet with friends and relatives. It gives us joy to be together, to see each other, to “breathe the same air.” In this regard, an episode from the television film “Seventeen Moments of Spring” is indicative. Stirlitz ( Soviet intelligence officer) met his wife in a small cafe in a “neutral” country infested with Nazi spies. They looked at each other without saying a word, without giving the appearance that they knew each other, that they were close people. At the same time, they were possessed by the most complex range of feelings, they experienced a great desire to rush to each other, to say a lot, to ask. Their mutual perception, unspoken, unexpressed thoughts and feelings under these circumstances were still the content of communication.

The unique content of communication should be recognized as relationships and relationships that fill communication, give it a unique flavor, coloring, and dictate the means and manner of communication. The entire communication system of a given person depends on the type of relationship that develops.

All these are just individual signs of the content of communication. Each person has many specific topics for communication, and the more diverse the topics of communication, the wider the circle of communication he is included in, the richer and more meaningful his personality.

Communication means

A person’s appearance consciously changes and, to a certain extent, is created by him. The appearance consists of a physiognomic mask, clothing, and demeanor. The physiognomic mask - the dominant facial expression - is formed under the influence of thoughts, feelings, and relationships that often arise in a person. Hairstyle, cosmetics, and plastic surgery greatly contribute to the creation of a mask. One can note evil, kind, arrogant, benevolent and other physiognomic masks. The appearance is also complemented by clothing, which is often an indicator of class, class, and professional affiliation. It is no coincidence that medieval cities the form of clothing that certain classes could wear was clearly regulated. Violation of this regulation was strictly punished. And now the form of clothing obliges a certain type of behavior. Military uniform requires discipline. The gaiety of a man in mourning clothes seems strange to us. A person’s manner of behavior reveals a person’s upbringing, his position, self-esteem, and attitude towards the person with whom he communicates. To establish contacts between people for the content and emotional side of communication, a person’s appearance has great importance: based on it, the first impression is formed, which often determines the development of relationships.

The appearance and physiognomic mask are static. The dynamic side of communication is manifested in gestures and facial expressions. Facial expressions are dynamic facial expressions at a given moment of communication. Gesture is a socially developed movement that conveys mental states. Both facial expressions and gestures develop as social means of communication, although some of the elements that make them up are innate. Thus, in physiological studies it has been noted that when perceiving objects that cause pleasure, the pupil dilates. A positive attitude towards a subject is manifested in the desire to get closer to it, expressed in broad gestures. Remember the figurative expression “Meet with open arms.” On the other hand, the social dependence of facial expressions and gestures is confirmed by the fact that in different cultures the same facial expressions and gestures can have diametrically opposite meanings. For example, wide open eyes for a Japanese are a sign of anger, for a European they are a sign of friendliness and surprise.

Non-verbal means of communication include the exchange of objects and things. By passing objects to each other, people thereby establish contacts. This method of communication dates back to the distant past, when at the dawn of human society, the exchange of products and tools was almost the only way of communication between tribes. Nowadays, this method has acquired a special meaning. Modern man is unthinkable without material activity; he must interact using objects and things. In a brigade, working; during the assembly of the machine, communication is carried out through speech: a plan is developed, a sequence of work is developed, and everyone’s responsibilities are distributed. When work begins, many operations are performed without verbal accompaniment: acceptance - delivery of parts and tools. Another example, a housewarming celebration is accompanied by the presentation of gifts: as a rule, items needed in a new apartment. It is the act of communicating through a thing.

In the last century, the custom of presenting a bouquet of flowers with meaning was widespread. A system of rules was developed according to which the type of flowers and their arrangement in a bouquet had a certain meaning. Flowers are still given today, thereby expressing an attitude, but the meaning of constructing a bouquet has been lost.

Tactile-muscular sensitivity is also a means of communication. Mutual touch; muscular tension for a movement directed at another person, or withholding from it - these are the limits of this kind of communication. Specific manifestations of it can be a handshake, a child being held in the mother’s arms, and martial arts among athletes (wrestlers, boxers, etc.). With the help of tactile-muscular sensitivity, a person learns physical strength, some personality traits, the relationship of another person, in turn, shows some of his own qualities and expresses his attitude towards him. Tactile-muscular sensitivity allows a person to determine the extent of physical impact on another person, the nature and extent of interaction with him. Tactile-muscular sensitivity is the main channel for receiving information from outside world and the main means of communication for people deprived of hearing and sight, and thus deprived of the opportunity to naturally master sound speech.

Communication as a category of psychological science. The problem of communication has traditionally been the focus of domestic social psychologists due to its significance in all spheres of human life and social groups. Communication, just like activity, consciousness, personality and a number of other categories, is not the subject only psychological research. Therefore, the task inevitably arises of identifying the specifically psychological aspect of this category. At the same time, the question of the connection between communication and activity is fundamental. One of the methodological principles for revealing this relationship is the idea of ​​unity of communication and activity. Based on this principle, communication is understood very broadly: as such a reality of human relations, which represents specific forms of joint activity of people. That is, communication is considered as a form of joint activity. In the process of communication, not only a mutual exchange of activities takes place, but also perceptions, ideas, feelings, a system of “subject-subject(s)” relationships manifests itself and develops.

General concept of communication and its components.

Communication is an externally observable process that is realized in the form of addresses to each other.

Communication is the subject-subject interaction of a person. It is in communication that a person demonstrates his personality. The object of activity during communication is another individual, another real or implied subject. The other subject is designated by the term partner.

In the very in a broad sense, communication is the interindividual mutual influence of those communicating on each other’s mental states. Communication x is any reaction of an individual to another individual, including even the image of the individual. Communication arises from the corresponding human need for it. There are gender differences not in the volume, but in the specifics of communication. Even when alone with oneself, a person retains the functions of communication. Communication with oneself can include both internal monologues and internal dialogues. The objects of communication can be animals, and even inanimate objects. Communication with the immediately following, not delayed feedback reaction is called contact, and the situation itself is called contact. The act of mutual exchange of single influences on each other is a unit of communication called a transaction. In a single process of communication, three sides can be roughly distinguished: communicative (transfer of information), interactive (interaction) and perceptual (mutual perception). The communicative component of communication involves the transfer of information from person to person using certain means. These means can be divided into two groups: verbal (linguistic) and non-verbal.

The interactive component of communication is, first of all, the features of interaction between partners, which are determined by their personal states. The perceptual component of communication characterizes it as the perception of a person by another person (social or interpersonal perception). In many ways, this perception occurs under the influence of social personal attitudes, which are formed on the basis of past experience, national and professional stereotypes. All three components are used simultaneously in the communication process and are isolated only for the convenience of scientific, experimental research. Psychology of speech utterance and psychology of speech understanding. The following speech processes are distinguished:

1. Relating to speech production: speaking and writing.
2. Related to speech perception: listening and reading.
3. Thought process - understanding: 1. Initial level of understanding of messages - understanding of words. 2. Understanding combinations of words, decoding them. In the Russian language, understanding at this level includes: understanding of inflectional relations; understanding of attributive constructions; understanding relationships expressed by prepositions; understanding comparative designs; understanding of inverted constructions; understanding phrases with double negatives. This level in itself without the first certain understanding of the text. 3. Understanding the meaning of the message as a whole. The meaning of a text is not the sum of the meanings of its constituent words and sentences. Moreover, the actual meaning of the text may even be a hint contained in the subtext.

In communication, people often formulate thoughts in such a way as to preserve the opportunity to refuse what was said. The subject of speaking is a certain thought. The purpose of speaking is the expression of thought, that is, the transformation of an idea into a message. The product of speaking is a speech utterance. The result of speaking is the partner’s response. The unit of speaking is a speech action. Psychological components of speech culture. Speech culture regulates relationships in the system person → culture → language. Manifests itself in speech behavior, in speech self-identification among varieties national language. Speech culture is such a choice and organization of linguistic means that, in a certain communication situation, while observing language norms and ethics, make it possible to ensure the greatest effect of the assigned communicative task.

Communicative qualities of speech:

1. Correctness, purity of speech.
2. Accuracy, logic.
3. Expressiveness, imagery.
4. Accessibility, understandability.
5. Effectiveness, relevance.

The main components of communication culture:

1. The richness of speech is the possession of the necessary set of means.
2. Precision – building communication in accordance with goals.
3. Ability to focus on the communication process.
4. The desire to take into account the position of the interlocutor.

Types and structure of communication.

2. According to the purposes, communication is divided into: a) biological (necessary for the maintenance, preservation and development of the body); b) social (pursues the goals of expanding and strengthening interpersonal contacts, establishing and developing interpersonal relationships, personal growth individual).

3. By means of communication, communication can be: a) direct (carried out with the help of natural organs given to a living being - arms, head, torso, vocal cords, etc.); b) indirect (associated with the use of special means and tools); c) direct (involves personal contacts and direct perception of communicating people by each other in the very act of communication); d) indirect (carried out through intermediaries, who can be other people).

4. By the number of communicators: a) interpersonal (one + one); b) public (one + a little); c) massive (one + many). The structure of communication can be characterized by distinguishing 3 sides in it: communicative, interactive and perceptual. The structure of communicative competence includes communicative knowledge, abilities, skills and abilities.

Technical components of communication. 2 groups of techniques:

1. active listening techniques;
2. Techniques for regulating emotional stress.

Groups of active listening techniques:

1. Techniques for formulating questions;
2. Small conversation technique. With the help of these 2 techniques, the ability to speak is realized in an interaction situation.
3. Verbalization technique - stage “A”;
4. Verbalization technique – stage “B”;
5. Verbalization technique – stage “B”.

With the help of these 3 techniques, the ability to hear and understand is realized in an interaction situation. Small conversation technique. A small conversation is a conversation on a topic that is interesting and pleasant for the interlocutors. The purpose of a small conversation is to create a favorable psychological atmosphere and lay the foundations of sympathy and trust; restore emotional balance.

Verbal and non-verbal communication. In communication, classes, types and varieties of communication are distinguished depending on the sign systems used. Classes: non-verbal and verbal communication. IN nonverbal communication There are 4 types:

1. Kinesics is the use of optical-kinetic sign systems. Varieties: using gestures to communicate; facial expressions; pantomime (use of signs of postures and body movements); display or demonstration in a communication situation (communication with drawings); use of decor; use of objects.
2. Use of paralinguistic and extralinguistic sign systems.
3. varieties: paralinguistic sign system (vocalization system, i.e. the quality of the voice, its range, tonality, timbre, etc. as a sign); extralinguistic system of signs (system of pauses, inclusions, such as coughing, crying, etc.).
4. Proxemics is the use of spatiotemporal characteristics as signs. Varieties: use of space as a sign (for example, distance); the use of temporal characteristics as a sign of communication.
5. Eye contact - this system works only with visual communication.

The class of verbal communication has one type, which is called speech communication. The sign system is language. Depending on the content carrier, there are 3 types: audio speech; written language; sign language of the deaf and dumb. Listening as a component of communication. Listening can be passive (non-reflective) and active (reflective). Passive listening includes non-verbal forms of communication (head shaking, etc.). Active listening includes paraphrasing what a partner said, asking clarifying questions, etc. Communicative personality traits. Sociability, sincerity, friendliness. Secretive, shy, distrustful, selfish people have difficulty making contact and do not immediately show trust in their communication partners.

The concept of competence in communication (L. A. Petrovskaya). Communicative competence (Petrovskaya L.A.) is a set of skills and abilities necessary for effective communication. The basis of communicative competence is not just mastery of language and other communication codes, but the personality traits of the individual as a whole, in the unity of his thoughts, feelings and actions that unfold in a specific social context. Characteristics of a person with high communicative competence. Signs:

1. Fast, timely and accurate orientation in the interaction situation and partners.
2. The desire to understand another person in the context of the requirements in a specific situation.
3. The attitude in contact is not only about the business, but also about the partner. This is a respectful, friendly attitude towards a partner and consideration of his condition and capabilities and other signs.

The main problems of human perception by man (A. A. Bodalev and others). In acts of mutual cognition, the action of three most important mechanisms of interpersonal perception should be highlighted: identification, reflection and stereotyping.

Identification- this is a way of understanding another person through conscious or unconscious assimilation of his characteristics to the characteristics of the subject himself. In interactional situations, people make assumptions about the internal state, intentions, thoughts, motives and feelings of another person based on an attempt to put themselves in their place. The subject’s awareness of how he is perceived by his communication partner is called reflection.

Reflection part of the perception of another person. Thus, the perception of a person by a person can be likened to a double mirror image. A person, reflecting another, reflects himself in the mirror of the perception of this other. In communication processes, identification and reflection appear in unity. A causal explanation of another person's actions by attributing to him feelings, intentions, thoughts and motives of behavior is called causal attribution. Causal attribution is most often carried out unconsciously - either on the basis of identification with another person, that is, when attributing to another those motives or feelings that the subject himself, as he believes, would have discovered in a similar situation, or by assigning a communication partner to a certain category persons in relation to whom certain stereotypical ideas have been developed.

Stereotyping– classification of forms of behavior and interpretation (sometimes without any reason) of their causes by attributing them to already known or seemingly known phenomena, i.e., corresponding to social stereotypes. A stereotype here is a formed image of a person that is used as a cliche. At the same time, stereotypical knowledge may be erroneous. In some cases, stereotyping can be biased. An essential basis for the formation of bias and subjectivism is the preliminary information that a person receives about the object of perception.

The interactive side of communication. Interactive communication – characterizes those components of communication that are associated with the interaction of people and the organization of their activities. The interactive side of communication is a conventional term denoting the characteristics of those components of communication that are associated with the interaction of people, with the direct organization of their joint activities. Some authors simply identify communication and interaction, presenting both as communication in the narrow sense of the word (i.e., as an exchange of information), others consider the relationship between interaction and communication as the relationship between the form of a certain process and its content. Sometimes they prefer to talk about the connected, but still independent existence of communication as communication and interaction as interaction.

Interaction is the side that records not only the exchange of information, but also the organization of joint actions that allow partners to implement some common activity for them. The concept of interpersonal interaction. Contact between two or more subjects of activity, which can take any form (direct and indirect, prolonged and momentary, in connection with an activity orientation towards a goal or in the logic of actual communication, emotionally rich or neutral in this regard, etc.) , but at the same time leads to a change in their behavior, system of semantic formations, the nature of relationships, activity-attitude personal attitude, etc. In addition, in social psychology the term “interaction” describes a system of mutual actions, deeds, deeds that are characterized by causality. the consequential nature of such activity of the two parties involved in interpersonal contact: in fact, any manifestation of the activity of one of the participants in the interaction turns out to be both a stimulus for the next behavioral act of the other and a kind of reaction to the previous actions of a partner or opponent. The most important characteristics interpersonal interaction as interactive aspects of communication are objectivity, explicitness, reflexive ambiguity and situationality. The subjectivity of interaction in this case presupposes the presence of some object or task, regarding which interpersonal contact is realized. Types of interpersonal interaction.

Based on the motives of communication, the following are distinguished: interaction strategies:

1. Cooperation is when partners have a motive to maximize their common gain.
2. Individualism – when partners are motivated to maximize their own gains.
3. Competition is the motivation to maximize relative gain.
4. Altruism is the motivation to maximize the gain of another.
5. Aggression is the motivation to minimize the gain of another.
6. Equality is the motivation to minimize differences in winnings.

Most often, these strategies are combined into 2 forms (types):

1. Cooperation;
2. Rivalry.

In cooperation, the goals of the communicating partners’ activities are common. Rivalry comes in many varieties:

1. Competition: when the goals of the activities of communicating partners are similar and not contradictory.
2. Competition: goals are similar and contradictory.
3. Conflict: when goals are opposite.

Separately, there are so-called special types of interaction:

1. Manipulation, including psychological games.
2. Provocation.
3. Pressure or psychological pressure from a partner.
4. Violence.

At manipulation partners' goals are at different levels. The real goals of the manipulator are different from those that he shows, reveals, and demonstrates to his partner. The manipulator's dominant motivation is to control the behavior of the other by creating such a situation that the partner is forced to behave in a manner beneficial to the manipulator. The opposite of the manipulator is the personality actualizer. The actualizer may not tell the whole truth, but he does not deceive. Complexly constructed chains of manipulative influences on each other are called psychological games.

Psychological games- This is the mutual exploitation by partners of each other’s expectations. Provocation is inducing behavior in a partner that is necessary to justify or self-justify one’s own behavior.

Pressure- This is a reference to the possibility of using violence. Pressure on a partner using compromising information is called blackmail. Violence is an interaction imbued with aggression. There are 2 forms of violence:

1. Coercion (softer) is the compulsion of a person to perform certain actions with the help of threats and deprivations.
2. An attack is a sudden attack on someone else’s psyche or someone else’s body.

Personality in the process of interpersonal interaction(effects of facilitation, compatibility, conformity).

Facilitation effect. In the presence of an observer, a person performs easy tasks better (facilitation), and difficult ones worse (inhibition). The presence of others increases a person's social arousal, it strengthens the dominant response (by performing an easy task, a person evaluates it accordingly and expects that the observer evaluates him as well and tries to meet the observer's expectations, namely, to solve easy tasks quickly and correctly, and vice versa). A person “gives up” his point of view in favor of group standards.

Compatibility effect. Interpersonal compatibility develops in the dyadic range. It requires mutual satisfaction by members of the dyad of each other's needs and behavioral phenomena. Interpersonal compatibility in a group was considered by Krichevsky in connection with 2 types of group activities: business (instrumental) and emotional (MLO). There are 4 types of compatibility: based on the teamwork and harmony of partners; operational-role – partners understanding of each other’s plans and actions; compatibility in personality traits; compatibility in gaming communication.

Conformity effect. Conformism is a person’s refusal of his point of view in favor of the majority when there is a disagreement of opinions. Researched by Ash. Group pressure functions:

1. Helps achieve goals in joint activities.
2. Creates a certain standard that is common to the group, which will differ from others.
3. Helps group members determine their relationship to the social environment.

The structure of interpersonal relationships. The entire set of relationships between a person and society is denoted by the concept of social relations. Among social relations, it is customary to specifically highlight interpersonal relationships, the relationships of people as individuals, which exist both on their own and accompany other social relationships, which we call business, official, etc. The closest communication is related communication. Marriage relationships are the most significant for a person. Relationships are a product of communication and every aspect of communication is a factor in the relationship.

Formal and informal relationships in the group. Researchers highlight the subordination of relationship systems in a group, their level arrangement:

1. Official relations;
2. Informal business relationships;
3. Informal emotional relationships.

M. A. Ivanov identified 2 levels of interpersonal relationships: between team members; between the supervisor and researchers. Within each level, relationships are divided into business and personal.

Social status of an individual in a group. The formal-status dimension gives an idea of ​​the subordination of individuals’ positions in the system of official relations in small group. According to research by Levine and Moreland (1996), the formal status of an individual in a group affects the nature of his relationships with other members of the group. Compared to low-status group members, high-status individuals have more opportunities to:

1. Openly influence other group members. They do it more often and more productively.
2. People with high status are often evaluated more positively than people with low status. They are credited with being more efficient, authoritative, sociable, etc.
3. People with high status are superior to people with low status in terms of self-esteem and self-esteem. There are 5 components of a high-status group member: 1. More conforming; 2. High status in the group is ensured by complete agreement with group norms. 3. The greatest commitment to group norms is demonstrated by the person occupying the second most prestigious position in the group.
4. Deviation from group norms may be allowed.
5. Sometimes the behavior of a high-status group member correlates not so much directly with group norms as with the expectations of low-status group members.

Ways to study interpersonal relationships in a group.

1). Method of sociometric measurements (sociometry). Sociometric technique is used to diagnose interpersonal and intergroup relations in order to change them. With the help of sociometry you can study typology social behavior people in group activities, judge the socio-psychological compatibility of members of specific groups.

2). Index Definition group cohesion Sishora. The technique consists of 5 questions with multiple answer options for each. Answers are coded in points. The maximum amount is 19 points, the minimum is 5.

3). Determination of the psychological climate of the group. Map-scheme of Lutoshkin. The left side of the sheet describes those qualities of the team that characterize a favorable psychological climate, the right side describes the qualities of the team with a clearly unfavorable climate. The degree of expression of certain qualities can be determined using a seven-point scale placed in the center of the sheet (from +3 to -3). To present the overall picture of the psychological climate of the team, you need to add up all the positive and negative points. And other techniques. The role of socio-psychological personality traits in optimizing interpersonal relationships in a group.

Empathy as a mechanism for the development of interpersonal relationships. N.N. Obozov considers empathy as a process (mechanism) and includes cognitive, emotional and effective components. According to him, empathy has three levels. The hierarchical structural-dynamic model is based on cognitive empathy (first level), manifested in the form of understanding mental state another person without changing his condition. The second level of empathy involves emotional empathy, not only in the form of understanding the state of another person, but also empathy and sympathy for him, an empathic response. This form of empathy includes two options. The first is associated with the simplest empathy, which is based on the need for one’s own well-being. Another, transitional form from emotional to effective empathy, is expressed in the form of sympathy, which is based on the need for the well-being of another person. The third level of empathy is the highest form, including cognitive, emotional and behavioral components. It fully expresses interpersonal identification, which is not only mental (perceived and understood) and sensory (empathetic), but also effective. At this level of empathy, real actions and behavioral acts are manifested to provide assistance and support to a communication partner (sometimes this style of behavior is called helping). There are complex interdependencies between the three forms of empathy (Obozov, 1979). In the presented approach, the second and third levels of empathy (emotional and effective) are quite convincingly and logically substantiated. At the same time, its first level (cognitive empathy), associated with understanding the state of other people without changing one’s state), is, in our opinion, a purely cognitive process. Mutual understanding in the process of communication. Mutual understanding is directly related to communication, understanding, and relationships between people.

Mutual understanding is difficult holistic process understanding oneself, another and understanding others. Mutual understanding is possible with a common understanding of the information and communication situation, since understanding another does not mean that he also understands you. Mutual understanding is possible not only in dyads, but also between an individual and a team, between teams, between groups. Mechanisms of communication (identification, reflection, empathy) are at the same time mechanisms of the process of mutual understanding. Mutual understanding contributes to the regulation of partners' behavior. Mutual understanding facilitates the implementation of joint activities. The achievement of mutual understanding between people is facilitated by the correspondence of the socio-historical living conditions of people, the same level of their culture, mental development, belonging to the same social groups, a common language and coinciding levels of mastery of it. The most important condition the emergence of mutual understanding - the coincidence of ideas of the participants in the interaction. 4 conditions of mutual understanding in communication and joint activities (V.V. Znakov):

1. Mnemonic condition (a person understands only what resonates in his memory. For understanding, some preliminary knowledge of what is understood is necessary).
2. Target generalized condition (a person usually understands only what corresponds to his forecasts, hypotheses, goals).
3. Empathic condition (you cannot understand another person without entering into a personal relationship with him, without showing empathy towards him).
4. Normative condition (in order to achieve mutual understanding, subjects of communication must proceed from the same postulates of communication and relate the subject of discussion to the same social patterns and norms of behavior).

Personal characteristics that influence mutual understanding: social affiliation, nationality, age, lifestyle, etc. The influence of profession on communication. Actors are characterized by a playful style of communication with others, as they get used to frequently playing different roles and often get used to them, as if continuing the game of real human relationships. Teachers and managers, due to the established non-democratic traditions in the field of business and pedagogical communication An arrogant tone is often characteristic. Doctors, especially psychotherapists, usually show increased attention and empathy when communicating with people.