Forms of government in ancient Rome. "the main forms of government in ancient Rome." Features of the Roman aristocratic republic

19.12.2023

MINISTRY OF GENERAL AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Krasnoyarsk Agrarian University

Main forms of government in Ancient Rome

Is done by a student

Checked:

Krasnoyarsk 98

Introduction

Rex reign period

Reform of Servius Tullius

Political organization of the slave-owning aristocratic Roman Republic

Master's degree

Dictator

"Collective" bodies

Features of the Roman aristocratic republic

Crisis of the Roman Republic and transition to monarchy

State organization of Rome during the imperial period: principate and dominance

Principate

Conclusion

Bibliography 3

Introduction.

The history of Ancient Rome dates back to the eighth century BC. (754-753). The Roman people are divided into clans (gens), unions of clans (curia) and three tribes - Ramni, Titii and Lucerians. The head of the city was the rex (king). There were seven kings in total - starting with Romulus and ending with Tarquin the Proud.

In 509 BC. Tarquin the Proud was overthrown, and the consul Junius Brutus was elected head of the city. The royal period ends and the period of the republic begins, which took about 500 years (509-27 BC).

Since 27 and up to 476 AD Rome is going through a period of empire, which in turn breaks up into the period of the principate (27 BC - 193 AD) and the dominant (193-476).

1. The period of the reign of the Rex.

The Roman community of the period of military democracy is heterogeneous in its social structure. Noble families, aristocrats and patricians stood out. From among them come military leaders and city magistrates. They traced their origins to gods, kings, and heroes. Little by little, the aristocracy acquires a clientele dependent on itself, and even earlier, slaves.

On certain days, clans, curiae, tribes, and then the entire union of tribes met in meetings to consider matters within their competence; about disputed inheritances and legal disputes in general, death sentences, etc.

There were 300 clans in total, 100 in each tribe. 10 clans formed a curia, 10 curias formed a tribe (tribe). Such an organization has been and remains the subject of scientific discussion, because its artificial origin is striking. This is - in essence - an army, rationally organized, at an early stage, under Romulus, which conquered and defended the captured land, and then began the systematic seizure of Italy.

The clan was a naturally formed unit and was patrilineal. Relatives bore the same name. This generic name was derived from the name of a real or mythical ancestor. Relatives should not marry within the clan.

As a member of a clan and tribe, a Roman citizen:

was a participant in common land ownership in the form of an allotment allocated to him and his family;
received the right to inherit the allotment and family property in general;
could demand help from his family and proper protection;
participated in general religious celebrations

In turn, the curia, the tribe and the union of tribes as a whole could demand from each citizen the fulfillment of his military and other public duties. Until a certain time, the rights and obligations of citizens were in a kind of harmony.

The heads of the clans constituted the council of elders or the senate, which over time acquired the significance of the main government authority. As family rulers, they were called fathers. The Senate had the right to preliminary discuss all those cases that were submitted to the decision of the people's assembly. He was also in charge of many of the current affairs of governing Rome. The total number of senators was first 100, then 300.

The Senate also existed under the kings, as well as the popular assembly, which was originally a meeting of the Roman curiae. Voting was also carried out among the curiae. Finally, the head of the Roman community, its civil ruler and supreme military leader was Rex, the king. It was an elected position accountable to the people. Rex had the functions of military leader, high priest and sometimes chief judge.

Also, the general meeting of the Roman people was, in addition to what was said, a military meeting, a review of the military strength of Rome. It was organized and voted according to its divisions.

Members of the clans, and through them the tribes, made up the Roman people. Thanks to the growth of productive forces, the emergence of patriarchal slavery and the property differentiation that arose on this basis, inequality developed among the Romans both between clans and within clans. In contrast to the clan, the patriarchal family became stronger. Individual noble families stood out. Their members began to claim a better share of the spoils, as well as the exclusive right to join the Senate, become military leaders, etc. This clan elite stood apart as patricians. On the contrary, poorer families supplied a layer of indentured slaves and people in various types of dependence, often similar to patriarchal slavery.

The clan organization of the Romans was destroyed. This process was aggravated by the fact that on the expanded territory of Rome, thanks to the conquests, there was a new settlement of conquered and foreigners who voluntarily settled in the city. These settlers, whose numbers grew, were called plebs, i.e. a bunch of.

The plebeians were free, they achieved the right of private ownership of land, engaging in crafts and trade. In terms of property they were heterogeneous. In their environment, not constrained by family ties, private property developed faster. Because of this, one part of them became rich, while the other became poor and easily fell into debt bondage. Initially, the plebeians were not included in the clan organizations of the indigenous Romans and were politically powerless. Sometimes some of the plebeians turned to the powerful patricians, seeking protection and help. On this basis, a relationship of dependence arose - “clienteles”. The patrician patron accepted the client into his family, gave him his name, allocated him part of the land, and defended him in court. The “client” (i.e., the faithful, obedient one) obeyed the patron in everything and was obliged to participate together with his family in the war. The bonds of clientele were considered sacred and inviolable.

The number of clients and even indentured slaves included mainly plebeians, but the native Romans also found themselves in such dependence.

At the end of the royal era (6th century BC), Roman society was already well aware of inequality and oppression, tribal relations gave way to class ones, and clan institutions were transformed into state ones.

Reform of Servius Tullius.

An important stage on the path of Roman statehood was the reform, which Roman tradition associates with the name of the sixth rex Servius Tullius. Under him, the plebeians were introduced into the Roman community, and the territorial tribes somewhat displaced the tribal ones.

It was done this way: Servius Tullius divided the entire male population of Rome, both patricians and plebeians, into six property categories. The criterion for property status was land allotment, livestock equipment, etc. Class 1 included people whose property was valued at no less than 100,000 copper asses. The minimum size for the 2nd class was property of 75,000 asses; for the 3rd - 50,000, for the 4th - 25,000, for the 5th - 11,500 asses. All poor people made up the 6th class - proletarians, whose wealth was only their offspring.

Each class fielded a certain number of military units - centuries (hundreds): 1st class - 80 centuries of heavily armed and 18 centuries of horsemen, a total of 98 centuries; 2nd grade - 22; 3 - 20; 4 -22; 5 - 30 lightly armed centuries and 6th class - 1 century, in total 193 centuries. Since each century had one vote, the combined opinion of the richest centuries gave 98 votes out of 193, that is, a majority. Therefore, during the coordinated voting of the first two categories, the rest were not asked.

In this simple way, the beginning of the rule of the rich and noble was laid, regardless of whether they were patricians or plebeians.

Along with all this structure, another important innovation was introduced to the undoubted benefit of the plebeians: the territory of the city was divided into 4 territorial districts - tribes, which serves as evidence of the victory of the principle of territorial division of the population over the tribal one.

The significance of the reforms of Servius Tullius is enormous. The resolution of all the most important issues in the life of the Roman community passed to the comitia centuriata, in which the entire population liable for military service participated, while the comitia curiata lost their importance. By merging patricians and plebeians into a single people, introducing territorial districts, and bringing to the forefront rich people, and not just well-born, the reform of Servius Tullius destroyed a society based on consanguinity and created in its place state a device based, as F. Engels wrote, on property differences and territorial division.

2. Political organization of the slave-owning aristocratic Roman republic.

The reform of Servius Tullius was an important concession to the plebeians, but it still did not put them on an equal footing with the patricians. Especially with regard to the allocation of land, which

In the VI–IV centuries. BC e. In Roman society, social differentiation continued among the poor population. In 494 BC. e. The plebeians obtained from the patricians the right to annually elect their representatives - the tribunes of the people (they protected the plebeians from oppression by the patrician magistrates) In the 4th century. BC e. the conquest of new territories led to a sharp increase in the number of slaves and a noticeable increase in their role in agriculture and crafts. In the 1st century BC e. Italics (free inhabitants of Italian city states subordinate to Rome) received Roman citizenship

Central government bodies.

1. People's assemblies were empowered to make decisions that had legal force. The main type of popular assembly was the comitia centuriata: they adopted bills, organized the elections of senior magistrates (consuls, praetors, censors), and had judicial powers.

2. Senate: its members at the beginning of the republic were appointed consuls, and from the 4th century. BC e. - censors (special magistrates) Formally, the senate was considered an advisory body under the magistrates: it approved laws adopted by the people's assembly and was in charge of finances. In cases of invasion by enemies or internal unrest, the Senate made a decision to approve the dictatorship and grant emergency powers to a special official (magistrate extraordinaire) - the dictator. From ser. V century BC e. Plebeians were admitted to the Senate.

3. The system of magistrates included officials authorized to represent the Roman state and make judicial and administrative decisions on its behalf. The principles of the organization and activities of magistracy: election, collegiality, urgency in the exercise of powers, responsibility to the people, gratuitous performance of public service. Kinds magistrates: those with the highest authority (imperium) (consuls and praetors) and those who do not have such powers.

Military service All full-fledged citizens who had a sufficient amount of property had to serve. In the 5th century BC e. was produced reform of Furius Marcus Camillus. The soldiers' salaries were set; placement in the ranks was now determined not by property status, but by experience and training. The army was commanded by the consuls. Consul Gaius Marius in 107 BC e. replaced the volunteer army with a hired army: the commander distributed the salary. The ground arose for a military dictatorship, which Sulla established in 82–79. BC e.

Criminal proceedings carried out by consuls (later also by praetors) The law should not be forgotten that Valeria, death sentences passed by consuls within the city limits could be appealed to the comitia centuriata. In the provinces, the courts were administered by proconsuls and propraetors (administrative officials appointed from Rome)

I century BC e. – a period of political instability: triumvirates and dictators replaced each other 27 BC e. the republic fell Octavian's principate was established, he received the title of emperor and lifelong rights of the people's tribune, became Augustus (holiness) and pontiff (high priest)

MINISTRY OF GENERAL AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Krasnoyarsk Agrarian University

Main forms of government in Ancient Rome

Is done by a student

Checked:

Krasnoyarsk 98

Introduction.

Since 27 and up to 476 AD Rome is going through a period of empire, which in turn breaks up into the period of the principate (27 BC - 193 AD) and the dominant (193-476).

1. The period of the reign of the Rex.

As a member of a clan and tribe, a Roman citizen:

1. was a participant in common land ownership in the form of an allotment allocated to him and his family;

2. received the right to inherit the allotment and family property in general;

3. could demand help from his family and proper protection;

4. participated in general religious celebrations

Also, the general meeting of the Roman people was, in addition to what was said, a military meeting, a review of the military strength of Rome. It was organized and voted according to its divisions.

The number of clients and even indentured slaves included mainly plebeians, but the native Romans also found themselves in such dependence.

Reform of Servius Tullius.

In this simple way, the beginning of the rule of the rich and noble was laid, regardless of whether they were patricians or plebeians.

2. Political organization of the slave-owning aristocratic Roman republic.

The reform of Servius Tullius was an important concession to the plebeians, but it still did not put them on an equal footing with the patricians. Especially in regard to the allocation of land, which became more and more as Italy was conquered. Another problem concerned the abolition of debt slavery, which is inevitable if the debt is not paid on time.

But to achieve both, the plebeians needed political rights Things came to a head with sharp clashes, but in the end, the plebeians achieved satisfaction of all their demands:

1. Institutions of special plebeian magistracy so-called. the people's tribunate, designed to protect the plebeians from the arbitrariness of the patricians;

2. Access to public land on an equal basis with patricians;

3. Protection from the arbitrariness of patrician judges (by introducing a code of laws known as the Laws of the 12 Tables);

4. Permissions for marriages between patricians and plebeians;

5. The right to occupy first some, and then all major government positions, including military ones.

In 287 BC. it was decided that the decisions of the plebeian assemblies have the same force as the decisions of the comitia centuriata, i.e. obligatory for all Roman citizens without exception and all government institutions of Rome. In addition, these decisions were not subject to either approval by the Senate or its revision.

Introduction.

Since 27 and up to 476 AD Rome is going through a period of empire, which in turn breaks up into the period of the principate (27 BC - 193 AD) and the dominant (193-476).

1. The period of the reign of the Rex.

As a member of a clan and tribe, a Roman citizen:

1. was a participant in common land ownership in the form of an allotment allocated to him and his family;

2. received the right to inherit the allotment and family property in general;

3. could demand help from his family and proper protection;

4. participated in general religious celebrations

Also, the general meeting of the Roman people was, in addition to what was said, a military meeting, a review of the military strength of Rome. It was organized and voted according to its divisions.

The number of clients and even indentured slaves included mainly plebeians, but the native Romans also found themselves in such dependence.

Reform of Servius Tullius.

MINISTRY OF GENERAL AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Krasnoyarsk Agrarian University

Main forms of government in Ancient Rome

Is done by a student

Checked:

Krasnoyarsk 98

Introduction.

Since 27 and up to 476 AD Rome is going through a period of empire, which in turn breaks up into the period of the principate (27 BC - 193 AD) and the dominant (193-476).

1. The period of the reign of the Rex.

As a member of a clan and tribe, a Roman citizen:

1. was a participant in common land ownership in the form of an allotment allocated to him and his family;

2. received the right to inherit the allotment and family property in general;

3. could demand help from his family and proper protection;

4. participated in general religious celebrations

Also, the general meeting of the Roman people was, in addition to what was said, a military meeting, a review of the military strength of Rome. It was organized and voted according to its divisions.

The number of clients and even indentured slaves included mainly plebeians, but the native Romans also found themselves in such dependence.

Reform of Servius Tullius.

In this simple way, the beginning of the rule of the rich and noble was laid, regardless of whether they were patricians or plebeians.

The significance of the reforms of Servius Tullius is enormous. The resolution of all the most important issues in the life of the Roman community passed to the comitia centuriata, in which the entire population liable for military service participated, while the comitia curiata lost their importance. By merging patricians and plebeians into a single people, introducing territorial districts, bringing to the forefront rich people, and not just well-born, the reform of Servius Tullius destroyed a society based on consanguinity, and in its place created a state structure based, as F. Engels wrote, on differences in property and territorial division.

2. Political organization of the slave-owning aristocratic Roman republic.

But to achieve both, the plebeians needed political rights. Things came to a head with sharp clashes, but in the end, the plebeians achieved satisfaction of all their demands:

1. Institutions of special plebeian magistracy so-called. the people's tribunate, designed to protect the plebeians from the arbitrariness of the patricians;

2. Access to public land on an equal basis with patricians;

3. Protection from the arbitrariness of patrician judges (by introducing a code of laws known as the Laws of the 12 Tables);

4. Permissions for marriages between patricians and plebeians;

5. The right to occupy first some, and then all major government positions, including military ones.

Of course, respect for antiquity of origin and nobility did not immediately disappear and patrician families retained an undoubted advantage in filling - albeit through elections - all the main positions in the state, but the legal predominance of the old Roman aristocracy in relation to the plebeians disappeared. Thus, the process of forming a slave-owning state was completed: the remnants of tribal relations were a thing of the past.

Master's degree.

At the head of Rome were the comitia centuriata and plebeian gatherings, then the senate. From the magistracies there remained, as in former times, consuls, praetors and tribunes of the people. All of them were elected by popular assemblies for a period of one year and were responsible for their actions after the expiration of their term of office. Adhering to the principle of collegiality of magistrates, the Romans annually elected two consuls, two (and then more) praetors, and the plebeians elected several tribunes of the people. Magistrates (chiefs) as a general rule did not interfere with one another, but with one exception: if, say, the consul found that the order of his colleague was incorrect and harmful, he could suspend it with his “veto”. It followed from this that the magistrates had to consult among themselves before deciding on any important measure (order).

The consuls dealt with all the primary affairs in civil and military matters, and during the war one of them remained in Rome, the other commanded the army.

The praetors, who acquired the importance of an independent magistracy (4th century BC), were engaged in judicial disputes. In its importance, the praetorship followed the consulate. Starting from the 3rd-2nd centuries. BC. praetors became interpreters of law and its creators.

The task of the people's (plebeian) tribunes was initially to protect the plebeians from the arbitrariness of patrician magistrates, but over time, when this duty practically disappeared, they took on the function of guardians of the law, defenders of every innocently offended citizen. In carrying out this function, the tribune of the people was provided with an important right - to impose a ban on the actions of magistrates that he considered illegal. Gradually, patrician politicians, like the Gracchi brothers, began to apply for the positions of plebeian tribunes, since the tribunes could enter all types of popular assemblies with legislative proposals.

The board of censors also played an important role in the political life of Rome. It consisted of five people and was elected for five years.

The censors had to distribute people into centuries, determining their property qualifications. Hence their name. They were then entrusted with the appointment of senators, which gave the college of censors important weight in the political system of the state. Another function of the censors was to monitor morals. An immoral act gave the censors grounds to remove an unworthy person from among the senators or equestrians and transfer him to lower centuries.

Dictator.

All of the above-mentioned master's degrees were ordinary, ordinary. The only post of dictator, appointed by one of the consuls by agreement with the Senate, was considered extraordinary. The reasons for the appointment of a dictator could be any crisis situations in the war or within the country that required urgent, indisputable and quick action. The person appointed by the dictator had the highest civil, military and judicial power at the same time. The dictator had legislative power; he was not afraid of any legal means of opposition, including the veto of the plebeian tribunes.

All other magistrates continued to function, but under the authority of the dictator.

After the expiration of the six-month period, the dictator was obliged to resign. The last known republican dictatorship took place in 220. BC.

Directly opposite to the republican dictatorship were the “dictatorships” that arose in gross violation of the republican constitution - the indefinite dictatorships of Sulla, Caesar, and others.

"Collective" bodies.

As for the “collective” authorities, there were several of them.

The centuriate meetings should be given first place. They were authorized - from ancient times - to accept or reject a bill presented by any of the magistrates - consul, praetor, tribune of the people. They voted by century.

In addition to legislative functions, the comitia centuriata elected or rejected officials proposed to them, resolved issues of war and peace, judged particularly serious crimes that threatened the perpetrator with the death penalty, etc.

Tributary comitia had, in principle, the same competence as centuriate comitia, but in matters of lesser importance (they elected lower magistrates, decided on the imposition of fines, etc.).

However, these meetings were not regular and were assembled at the will of one of the magistrates - the consul, praetor, tribune of the people, high priest. Their decisions were most often predetermined by the magistrates.

Really important was the Senate, which arose under the Roman kings as a strictly patrician advisory body. The transition to a republic strengthened the influence of the Senate, as the only permanent constitutional body of power that expressed the will of the patriciate.

The senate was convened by one of the magistrates, who informed those gathered both the reason for the convocation and the subject of discussion. The speeches and decisions of senators were recorded in special books.

Initially, the Senate had the right to approve or reject the decisions of the comitia. But already from the 4th century. BC. The Senate began to express its agreement or disagreement with the bill, previously submitted for approval by the comitia. The opinion of the Senate was, in this case, far from being a formality, for both the magistrates and the corresponding comitia (and first of all the first 98) stood behind it.

But the Senate did not have executive power and in this regard it had to turn to the help of the magistrates.

The special competence of the Senate included, first of all, international affairs, financial (income and expenses), religious issues, declaration and conduct of war, foreign policy in general, etc.

The peak of the power of the Senate, when without it not a single significant measure was taken in the field of foreign and domestic policy, falls on 300-135. BC. The decline in the role of the Senate began in the era of civil wars (2nd-1st centuries BC), when state affairs were decided by strong individuals (Marius, Sulla, Caesar). During the period of the empire, the Senate, while maintaining external greatness, lost its power in favor of the emperors.

Features of the Roman aristocratic republic.

What are the fundamental features of the Roman aristocratic republic during the best years of its existence? What prevented its transition to Athenian-type democracy, monarchy, and oligarchy?

To this question we can say: a system of checks and balances in the functioning of the ruling magistracy, firstly, and more broadly, a stable, reasonable distribution of power between democracy and aristocracy, even with a clear predominance of the latter. A system of checks and balances runs through the entire system of the Roman form of government:

Two meetings, one of which was initially purely plebeian.

Collegiality of magistrates with the right of intercession of one of the magistrates in the affairs of another, his colleague.

Non-interference of one magistracy in the affairs of another (a kind of separation of powers).

Strictly enforced urgency of all magistrates without exception and responsibility of magistrates for abuses.

Separation of the judiciary from the executive. Exclusive powers of the people's tribunes.

The presence of the Senate, as an appointed body with the highest authority, but deprived of executive power.

During all the years of the republic (until the era of dictatorships), the army was the people's militia and, for this alone, a force that stood on the way to tsarist power or an oligarchic form of government.

When, with Rome's broad policy of conquest, the Roman army became a permanent instrument of politics, a mercenary force supported by conquered peoples, the barrier to military dictatorships, and then the transition to monarchical rule, was destroyed.

The crisis of the Roman Republic and the transition to monarchy.

In the second century BC. After the victory over Carthogen, Rome dominates almost all lands washed by the Mediterranean Sea. These lands, in addition to their special value, became the source from which Rome drew new and new masses of slaves, who found wide use in the vast estates of the old and new nobility - all these senators and horsemen, transformed in the 4-3 centuries BC. into the class of nobles.

In the 1st century BC. Rome found itself drawn into the difficult Allied War, as a result of which it was forced to grant Roman citizenship to the entire population of Italy.

The allied war did not bring either Rome or Italy genuine peace. The era of personal power, the era of dictatorships was approaching. The first among the dictators was the commander Sulla, who, relying on an army loyal to him, established a regime of sole power or dictatorship in Rome. It was indefinite and in this alone it differed from the republican dictatorship. In addition, Sulla arrogated to himself legislative functions and the right to arbitrarily dispose of the lives and property of citizens. He granted new rights to the Senate and sharply limited the powers of popular assemblies. The stands were deprived of political functions. Sulla's dictatorship meant the onset of a new historical era in Roman history and, most of all, the end of the republic.

Sulla's abdication (79 BC) returned Rome to a republican constitution, but not for long. The new Roman dictatorship was in the hands of Gaius Julius Caesar. It came at a time following the Spartacist slave revolt (74 BC), which clearly exposed the crisis of the republican form of government and the need for an authoritarian state.

The peculiarity of Caesar's dictatorship is that it united in one hand not only the consular and tribunic powers, but also the censorship and the highest priestly powers. Due to his position as commander of the army, Caesar received the title of emperor. The comitia made dependent on him, although they continue to exist, imitating the preservation of the republic, follow the instructions of the emperor, including those relating to the election to office.

In addition, Caesar received the authority to dispose of the army and the treasury of the state, the right to distribute provinces between proconsuls and recommend half of the candidates for magistrates in general, the right to be the first to vote in the Senate, which was important, etc.

... ; 5. The binding nature of decisions of the supreme state power for all other state bodies; 6. Primary protection of the interests of citizens, mutual responsibility. The republican form of government developed in the ancient world (Roman Senate Republic in the 5th-1st centuries BC). Ancient slave republics existed in the form of aristocratic and democratic republics. IN...

Within the framework of monarchism: economy, finance, standard of living, self-government, national representation, etc. Thus, we can highlight the following main features of the classical monarchical form of government: - the existence of a sole bearer of supreme state power; - dynastic inheritance of supreme power; - lifelong ownership of power by the monarch: laws...

samarapedsovet.ru