1618 1648 event. Thirty Years' War. What were joint agreements?

The last major religious war broke out in Europe 400 years ago, in 1618. At the same time, it became the first all-European war - one of the most cruel, stubborn, bloody and longest in the history of the Old World.

Starting as a religious one, it gradually turned into a dispute for hegemony in Europe, territories and trade routes. The instigator was the House of Habsburg, the Catholic principalities of Germany. Opponents were Sweden, Denmark, France and German Protestants.

The turn of the XVI-XVII for Europe is associated with a difficult period of transition from the Middle Ages to the New Age. Simultaneously with the strengthening of the positions of the Catholic Church, the fashion for astrology and the occult came, conflicts between the church and representatives of the scientific world escalated.

At this time, for more than a decade, the leading role in political life belonged to the Habsburg dynasty, which was divided into Spanish and Austrian branches. At the beginning of the 17th century, the Spanish branch of the house owned, in addition to the Spanish kingdom, also Portugal, the Southern Netherlands and many other lands.

In the possession of the Austrian Habsburgs were the Holy Roman Empire, Bohemia, Hungary, Croatia.

At the same time, the rest of the major European states had to restrain the aggressive appetites of the Habsburgs in order to prevent them from increasing their possessions at their own expense.

Thus, it is possible to identify the main causes of the Thirty Years' War:

Counter-Reformation: an attempt by the Catholic Church to win back the positions lost during the Reformation from Protestantism.

The desire of the Habsburgs, who ruled the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation and Spain, for hegemony in Europe

The fears of France, which saw in the policy of the Habsburgs an infringement of their national interests

The desire of Denmark and Sweden to monopoly control the maritime trade routes of the Baltic

The selfish aspirations of numerous petty European monarchs, who hoped to snatch something for themselves in the general dump.

The confrontation was led by France, the largest European state of that time, surrounded in the north by the possessions of the Habsburgs. The dynasty was also opposed by the Republic of the United Provinces (Netherlands) and England.

The most tense was the situation in the Holy Roman Empire and Italy, where the brewing political conflict was complicated by the religious confrontation between Catholics and Protestants. Meanwhile, Protestant Denmark and Sweden were intensively developing and eager to monopolize the Baltic, which was actively resisted by the Catholic Rzeczpospolita.

On the basis of religious conflicts, uprisings and riots broke out. The Protestant principalities in the south and west of Germany united in the Evangelical Union in 1608 to resist the onslaught of the Catholics.

In 1617, Holy Roman Emperor Matthew, who had no children of his own, declared his nephew, Archduke Ferdinand of Styria, heir to the throne of the Czech Republic. The bulk of the population of the Czech Republic were Protestants, while Ferdinand was a fanatical Catholic who declared that "it is better to rule a desert than a country full of heretics." This caused strong discontent on the part of the Czechs.

Matthew himself, meanwhile, was less and less inferior to the Protestants. So, he gave the village, which was assigned freedom of religion, to the Archbishopric of Prague, which forced the population to convert to Catholicism and ordered the destruction of the newly built Protestant church.

The situation turned out to be similar in the city of Braunau (now Broumov), where the local Catholic abbot forbade the use of the Protestant church, and the residents who objected were arrested.

In March 1618, the inhabitants of the Czech Republic, together with opposition Protestant nobles, gathered in Prague and turned to Matthew, who had left for Vienna, demanding the release of prisoners and stop violating the religious rights of Protestants, and also planned another, more serious congress for May.

Matvey, however, forbade the holding of a new congress and declared that he would punish its instigators. On May 23, 1618, the congress nevertheless took place. Its participants threw out of the windows of the Czech Chancellery two royal governors and their scribe.

The latter suffered the least. Jumping to his feet, he helped the king's deputies get up, and then made his way home and hurried with a report to Matthew in Vienna.

Although all three survived, the attack on the emperor's representatives was regarded as a symbolic attack on the emperor himself. This day was the beginning of the Thirty Years' War - the last major religious war in Europe.

On July 28, 1618, a coup d'etat took place in the Czech Republic, Ferdinand came to power. The Czech Republic was occupied by a 15,000-strong Catholic army, to counter which the leaders of the Evangelical Union gathered a 20,000-strong army. The Catholic troops were forced to retreat.

However, the leaders of the union, Elector (Prince) Frederick V and Duke Charles Emmanuel I, failed to get support from the rest of its members in creating a powerful Protestant army and protesting Ferdinand. They thought that Frederick thus plans to stand at the head of Bohemia. Ferdinand meanwhile sought financial support from the Spanish branch of the Habsburgs.

Matthew died in 1619. Bohemia refused to recognize Ferdinand as its ruler and elected Frederick in his place. He found himself in a difficult position - both in Unia and in his family, almost everyone was against such a turn of events. Frederick's wife, however, wanted him to take the throne.

“I would rather eat sauerkraut with the king than roast with the elector,” she said.

Also, the decision to coronate Frederick was supported by Chancellor Christian of Anhalt. Under their pressure, Frederick nevertheless agreed to ascend the throne of Bohemia. Ferdinand, having learned about this, ordered the newly-made king to leave Bohemia in the coming months.

By the end of 1619, Ferdinand was able to secure large subsidies from the Catholic Church and military aid. Taking advantage of the differences within the union, the Habsburgs obtained from it an obligation not to provide assistance to the Czechs. In September 1620, Ferdinand's army defeated Frederick's troops, forcing him to flee to Holland. The evangelical union broke up.

In 1623, Ferdinand retook the Palatinate, a territorial entity previously ruled by Frederick. The first stage of the war ended with a convincing victory for the Habsburgs.

The attempt of the Habsburgs to establish themselves in Westphalia and Lower Saxony and carry out Catholic reforms there threatened the interests of the Protestant states of Northern Europe - Denmark and Sweden. In 1625, Denmark began hostilities against Ferdinand. However, he managed to gather a huge mercenary army and successfully repelled the attack, soon capturing many of Denmark's possessions.

But he could not occupy the island part of Denmark and attack Holland because of the opposition of the Hanseatic League, which included more than 150 cities and under the influence of which there were more than 3000 settlements. In 1629, Ferdinand was forced to return the occupied lands to Denmark in exchange for an obligation not to interfere in German affairs.

In the same year, Ferdinand issued a decree returning to the Roman Church all the lands and property that she had lost in the Protestant principalities after 1555.

The growth of the power of the Habsburgs in Germany caused serious alarm in France and Sweden. The King of Sweden, Gustav II Adolf, came to the defense of the German Protestants. In 1630, he succeeded in seizing French lands and obtaining substantial annual subsidies in exchange for respecting the rights of the Catholic Church in the occupied territories.

By 1631, the Swedes reached the Palatinate, in March 1632 they launched an offensive in southern Germany. However, Ferdinand's troops again managed to put up decent resistance.

The successes of the Habsburgs forced France to declare war on the emperor and Spain.

She involved her allies in Italy in the conflict: the Duchy of Savoy, the Duchy of Mantua and the Venetian Republic. By 1638, the war finally had an advantage in the direction of the anti-Habsburg coalition.

The Swedes, the French and their allies crushed one army of Ferdinand after another. Their success was halted by the entry into the war of Denmark, who feared that Sweden would seize the Baltic. However, soon the positions were restored, and the opponents of the Habsburgs continued the offensive.

In the summer of 1648, the Swedes laid siege to Prague. And on October 24, after negotiations in Munich, the Peace of Westphalia was concluded, which put an end to the war. Negotiations began in 1645 and were conducted in two cities of Westphalia: Münster and Osnanbrück. Representatives of the Holy Roman Empire, France and other Catholic states negotiated in Munster, and representatives of the Holy Roman Empire, Sweden and Protestant German princes negotiated in Osnabrück.

Each country participating in the congress pursued its own goals: France - to break the encirclement of the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs, Sweden - to achieve hegemony in the Baltic, the Holy Roman Empire and Spain - to make fewer territorial concessions. The Peace of Westphalia confirmed the equality of the Catholic and Protestant religions throughout Germany.

The largest Protestant states of Germany increased their territories, mainly at the expense of the former church possessions. Some church possessions came under the rule of foreign rulers - the kings of France and Sweden.

The positions of the Catholic Church in Germany were weakened, and the Protestant princes finally secured their rights and actual independence from the empire. The Peace of Westphalia legitimized the fragmentation of Germany, giving the many states that made up her full sovereignty. By drawing a line under the era of the Reformation, the Peace of Westphalia opened a new chapter in European history.

The results of the Thirty Years' War - the Peace of Westphalia established the borders of European states, becoming the source document for all treaties until the end of the 18th century
- German princes received the right to conduct a policy independent of Vienna
- Sweden has achieved dominance in the Baltic and the North Sea
- France received Alsace and the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, Verdun
- Holland is recognized as an independent state
- Switzerland gained independence from the Empire

causes of the Thirty Years' War 1618-1648

  1. Religious reasons. Undoubtedly, the beginning of the 30-year war is closely connected with religion. The relationship between Catholics and Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire changed dramatically in connection with the coming to power of Ferdinand. Ferdinand of Styria, confirmed as heir to the Czech throne on June 9, 1617, took power into his own hands with the help of the Spaniards. Along with this, he was known as the heir to the head of the Holy Roman Empire. Protestants were worried that Ferdinand was pursuing a policy that pursued the interests of the Germans and Catholics. He was entirely converted to the Catholic faith and did not at all take into account the interests of the Protestants. Ferdinand granted various privileges to Catholics, limiting the rights of Protestants in every possible way. Through such acts, he turned the people against him, in addition, he established increased religious control. political reasons. Along with the dissatisfaction of ordinary Protestant residents, at the same time, actions against Ferdinand by representatives of the ruling circles begin. In connection with the coming to power of Ferdinand, several political personalities, among whom was Heinrich Matvey Thurn, who organized the protest ordinary people against the deeds of Ferdinand. One of the individuals who contributed to the uprising of the Protestants against the authorities was Frederick V, at that time he served as elector in the possession of the Palatinate. By the beginning of the war, the Protestants proclaimed among themselves Frederick V king. All these actions of the Protestants only exacerbated the already aggravated situation. Such political moves were another reason for the war. The 30-year war, which began on the land of the Czech Republic, was marked by victory for three years. However, hostilities were not limited to this, they continued into the Danish, Swedish and Franco-Swedish periods. The war, which began as a result of religious reasons, began to acquire a purely political character over time. Denmark and Sweden, which were supposed to protect the interests of the Protestants, through the war pursued the goal of correcting their socio-economic situation and strengthening their political authority. Along with this, having defeated the Habsburgs, they aimed to acquire major political power in Central Europe. economic reasons. The Habsburg dynasty, which did not take into account the interests of the Protestants, was the head of the Holy Roman Empire, and the empire, located in Central Europe, possessed several strategically significant territories. The northern regions are located close to the Baltic coast. If the Habsburg dynasty became the leader of Europe, then they would certainly fight for possessions on the Baltic coast. Therefore, Denmark and Sweden prevented such an imperial policy, as they put above all the interests on the Baltic coast. By defeating the Habsburg dynasty, they aimed to bring the territories of the empire into their composition. European states located near the Baltic Sea. Of course, such an action was due to their economic interests. Along with this, the natural and other wealth of the state generated great interest foreign countries, moreover, from a simple warrior to a commander with the rank, they were looking for benefits from this war. These are the main causes of the 30-year war, which covered the period from 1618 to 1648. From the above information, one can make observations that the 30-year war began as a result of religious exacerbations. However, during the war itself, the religious problem acquired an additional character, the main purpose of which was to pursue state interests. Defending the rights of Protestants was only the main reason for the start of the 30-year war.
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    nikita surovyatkin Student (166) 6 months ago
    Thirty Years' War military conflict for hegemony in the Holy Roman Empire and Europe, which lasted from 1618 to 1648 and
  2. Causes of the Thirty Years' War:
    Religious controversy escalated again
    Germany again split into two hostile factions - the Catholic League and the Evangelical Union
    Ferdinand II wanted to end the Protestant heresy
    He also sought to clarify the dominance of the Habsburgs in Europe.
  3. The Thirty Years' War was a military conflict for hegemony in the Holy Roman Empire and Europe, which lasted from 1618 to 1648 and affected almost all European countries to one degree or another. The war began as a religious clash between the Protestants and Catholics of the empire, but then escalated into a fight against Habsburg dominance in Europe. The conflict was the last major religious war in Europe and gave rise to the Westphalian system of international relations.

    The war began after the Prague Defenestration on May 23, 1618, which marked the beginning of an uprising of the Czech estates against attempts at re-Catholicization by the Czech king who belonged to the House of Habsburg. Followed fighting are divided into four major periods, named after the main opponents of the emperor: Czech-Palatinate, Danish, Swedish and Franco-Swedish. Two attempts to end the conflict, the Treaty of Lübeck (1629) and the Peace of Prague (1635), ended unsuccessfully, because they did not take into account the interests of all directly or indirectly interested parties. Only the All-European Westphalian Peace Congress (16411648) succeeded in this. The Peace of Westphalia on October 24, 1648, fixed a new balance of power between the Holy Roman Emperor and the imperial estates and determined the constitutional framework that was in force in the empire until its collapse in 1806. The Republic of the United Provinces and the Swiss Union became independent states and seceded from the empire.

    The fighting of the Thirty Years' War took place in Central Europe, mainly in the territory of modern Germany. Both the fighting itself and the resulting famine and epidemics devastated entire regions. In southern Germany, only a third of the population survived the war. It took many areas more than a century to recover from the economic and social decline caused by the war.

  4. The Thirty Years' War was a military conflict for hegemony in the Holy Roman Empire and Europe, which lasted from 1618 to 1648 and affected almost all European countries to one degree or another. The war began as a religious clash between the Protestants and Catholics of the empire, but then escalated into a fight against Habsburg dominance in Europe. The conflict was the last major religious war in Europe and gave rise to the Westphalian system of international relations.

    The war began after the Prague Defenestration on May 23, 1618, which marked the beginning of an uprising of the Czech estates against attempts at re-Catholicization by the Czech king who belonged to the House of Habsburg. The ensuing hostilities are divided into four major periods, named after the main opponents of the emperor: Czech-Palatinate, Danish, Swedish and Franco-Swedish. Two attempts to end the conflict, the Treaty of Lübeck (1629) and the Peace of Prague (1635), ended unsuccessfully, because they did not take into account the interests of all directly or indirectly interested parties. Only the All-European Westphalian Peace Congress (16411648) succeeded in this. The Peace of Westphalia on October 24, 1648, fixed a new balance of power between the Holy Roman Emperor and the imperial estates and determined the constitutional framework that was in force in the empire until its collapse in 1806. The Republic of the United Provinces and the Swiss Union became independent states and seceded from the empire.

    The fighting of the Thirty Years' War took place in Central Europe, mainly in the territory of modern Germany. Both the fighting itself and the resulting famine and epidemics devastated entire regions. In southern Germany, only a third of the population survived the war. It took many areas more than a century to recover from the economic and social decline caused by the war.

  5. Religious reasons. Undoubtedly, the beginning of the 30-year war is closely connected with religion. The relationship between Catholics and Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire changed dramatically in connection with the coming to power of Ferdinand. Ferdinand of Styria, confirmed as heir to the Czech throne on June 9, 1617, took power into his own hands with the help of the Spaniards. Along with this, he was known as the heir to the head of the Holy Roman Empire. Protestants were worried that Ferdinand was pursuing a policy that pursued the interests of the Germans and Catholics. He was entirely converted to the Catholic faith and did not at all take into account the interests of the Protestants. Ferdinand granted various privileges to Catholics, limiting the rights of Protestants in every possible way. Through such acts, he turned the people against him, in addition, he established increased religious control. political reasons. Along with the dissatisfaction of ordinary Protestant residents, at the same time, actions against Ferdinand by representatives of the ruling circles begin. In connection with the coming to power of Ferdinand, several political personalities were deprived of their positions, among which was Heinrich Matvey Thurn, who organized a protest of ordinary people against the acts of Ferdinand. One of the individuals who contributed to the uprising of the Protestants against the authorities was Frederick V, at that time he served as elector in the possession of the Palatinate. By the beginning of the war, the Protestants proclaimed among themselves Frederick V king. All these actions of the Protestants only exacerbated the already aggravated situation. Such political moves were another reason for the war. The 30-year war, which began on the land of the Czech Republic, was marked by victory for three years. However, hostilities were not limited to this, they continued into the Danish, Swedish and Franco-Swedish periods. The war, which began as a result of religious reasons, began to acquire a purely political character over time. Denmark and Sweden, which were supposed to protect the interests of the Protestants, through the war pursued the goal of correcting their socio-economic situation and strengthening their political authority. Along with this, having defeated the Habsburgs, they aimed to acquire major political power in Central Europe. economic reasons. The Habsburg dynasty, which did not take into account the interests of the Protestants, was the head of the Holy Roman Empire, and the empire, located in Central Europe, possessed several strategically significant territories. The northern regions are located close to the Baltic coast. If the Habsburg dynasty became the leader of Europe, then they would certainly fight for possessions on the Baltic coast. Therefore, Denmark and Sweden prevented such an imperial policy, as they put above all the interests on the Baltic coast. By defeating the Habsburg dynasty, they aimed to bring into their composition the territories of the empire of European states located near the Baltic Sea. Of course, such an action was due to their economic interests. Along with this, the natural and other wealth of the state generated great interest in foreign countries, moreover, from a simple warrior to a commander with the rank, they were looking for benefits from this war. These are the main causes of the 30-year war, which covered the period from 1618 to 1648. From the above information, one can make observations that the 30-year war began as a result of religious exacerbations. However, during the war itself, the religious problem acquired an additional character, the main purpose of which was to pursue state interests. Defending the rights of Protestants was only the main reason for the start of the 30-year war.
  6. The 30-year war began as a result of religious exacerbations. However, during the war itself, the religious problem acquired an additional character, the main purpose of which was to pursue state interests. Defending the rights of Protestants was only the main reason for the start of the 30-year war. In our opinion, the war, which dragged on for a long 30 years, was the result of a deep political and economic crisis. The war ended on October 24, 1648 with the adoption of a peace agreement in the cities of Münster and Osnabrück. This agreement went down in history as the Peace of Westphalia.

Albert von Wallenstein - commander of the Thirty Years' War

The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) was the first all-European war. One of the most cruel, stubborn, bloody and longest in the history of the Old World. It began as a religious one, but gradually turned into a dispute for hegemony in Europe, territories and trade routes. It was conducted by the house of Habsburg, the Catholic principalities of Germany on the one hand, Sweden, Denmark, France, German Protestants on the other

Causes of the Thirty Years' War

— Counter-Reformation: an attempt by the Catholic Church to win back from Protestantism the positions lost during the Reformation
— The desire of the Habsburgs, who ruled the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation and Spain, for hegemony in Europe
— The fears of France, which saw in the policy of the Habsburgs an infringement of their national interests
The desire of Denmark and Sweden to monopoly control the maritime trade routes of the Baltic
— Selfish aspirations of numerous petty European monarchs, who hoped to snatch something for themselves in a general dump

Members of the Thirty Years' War

— Habsburg bloc - Spain and Portugal, Austria; Catholic League - some of the Catholic principalities and bishoprics of Germany: Bavaria, Franconia, Swabia, Cologne, Trier, Mainz, Würzburg
— Denmark, Sweden; Evangelical or Protestant Union: Electorate of the Palatinate, Württemberg, Baden, Kulmbach, Ansbach, Palatinate-Neuburg, Landgraviate of Hesse, Electorate of Brandenburg and several imperial cities; France

Stages of the Thirty Years' War

  • Bohemian-Palatinate period (1618-1624)
  • Danish period (1625-1629)
  • Swedish period (1630-1635)
  • Franco-Swedish period (1635-1648)

course of the Thirty Years' War. Briefly

“There was a mastiff, two collies and a St. Bernard, some bloodhounds and Newfoundlands, a beagle, a French poodle, a bulldog, a few lapdogs and two mutts. They sat patiently and thoughtfully. But then a young lady came in, leading a fox terrier on a chain; she left him between a bulldog and a poodle. The dog sat down and looked around for a minute. Then, without a hint of any reason, he grabbed the poodle by the front paw, jumped over the poodle and attacked the collie, (then) grabbed the bulldog by the ear ... (Then) and all the other dogs opened hostilities. The big dogs fought among themselves; small dogs also fought with each other, and in their free moments they bit big dogs by the paws.(Jerome K. Jerome "Three in One Boat")

Europe 17th century

Something similar happened in Europe at the beginning of the 17th century. The Thirty Years' War began as a seemingly autonomous Czech uprising. But at the same time, Spain fought with the Netherlands, in Italy they sorted out the relations between the Duchy of Mantua, Monferrato and Savoy, in 1632-1634 Muscovy and the Commonwealth clashed, from 1617 to 1629 there were three major clashes between Poland and Sweden, Poland also fought with Transylvania, that in turn called on Turkey for help. In 1618, an anti-republican conspiracy was uncovered in Venice ...

  • March 1618 - Czech Protestants appealed to the Holy Roman Emperor Matthew with a demand to stop the persecution of people on religious grounds
  • 1618, May 23 - in Prague, the participants of the Protestant congress committed violence against the representatives of the emperor (the so-called "Second Prague defenestration")
  • 1618, summer - palace coup in Vienna. Matthew on the throne was replaced by Ferdinand of Styria, a fanatical Catholic
  • 1618, autumn - the imperial army entered the Czech Republic

    Movements of Protestant and imperial armies in the Czech Republic, Moravia, the German lands of Hesse, Baden-Württemberg, Rhineland-Palatinate, Saxony, sieges and the capture of cities (Ceske Budejovice, Pilsen, Palatinate, Bautzen, Vienna, Prague, Heidelberg, Mannheim, Bergen-op -Zoom), battles (at the village of Sablat, on the White Mountain, at Wimpfen, at Hoechst, at Stadtlon, at Fleurus), diplomatic maneuvers were characteristic of the first stage of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1624). It ended with the victory of the Habsburgs. The Czech Protestant uprising failed, Bavaria got the Upper Palatinate, and Spain captured the Electoral Palatinate, securing a foothold for another war with the Netherlands

  • 1624, June 10 - Treaty of Compiègne between France, England and the Netherlands on an alliance against the imperial house of Habsburg
  • 1624, July 9 - Denmark and Sweden joined the Treaty of Compiegne, fearing the growth of Catholic influence in northern Europe
  • 1625, spring - Denmark opposed the imperial army
  • 1625, April 25 - Emperor Ferdinand appointed Albrech von Wallenstein as commander of his army, who invited the emperor to feed his mercenary army at the expense of the population of the theater of operations
  • 1826, April 25 - Wallenstein's army at the battle of Dessau defeated the Protestant troops of Mansfeld
  • 1626, August 27 - The Catholic army of Tilly defeated the troops of the Danish king Christian IV in the battle of the village of Lutter
  • 1627, spring - Wallenstein's army moved to the north of Germany and captured it, including the Danish peninsula of Jutland
  • 1628, September 2 - at the Battle of Wolgast, Wallenstein once again defeated Christian IV, who was forced to withdraw from the war

    On May 22, 1629, a peace treaty was signed in Lübeck between Denmark and the Holy Roman Empire. Wallenstein returned the occupied lands to Christian, but obtained a promise not to interfere in German affairs. This ended the second phase of the Thirty Years' War.

  • 1629, March 6 - the emperor issued an Edict on restitution. fundamentally curtailed the rights of Protestants
  • 1630, June 4 - Sweden entered the Thirty Years' War
  • 1630, September 13 - Emperor Ferdinand, who feared the strengthening of Wallenstein, dismissed him
  • 1631, January 23 - an agreement between Sweden and France, according to which the Swedish king Gustav Adolf pledged to keep a 30,000-strong army in Germany, and France, represented by Cardinal Richelieu, to take on the costs of maintaining it
  • 1631, May 31 - The Netherlands made an alliance with Gustavus Adolphus, pledging to invade Spanish Flanders and subsidize the king's army
  • 1532, April - the emperor again called Wallenstein to the service

    The third, Swedish, stage of the Thirty Years' War was the most fierce. Protestants and Catholics had already mixed up in the armies for a long time, no one remembered how it all began. The main driving motive of the soldiers was profit. Because they killed each other without mercy. By storming the fortress of Neu-Brandenburg, the emperor's mercenaries completely killed his garrison. In response, the Swedes destroyed all the prisoners during the capture of Frankfurt an der Oder. Magdeburg was completely burned, tens of thousands of its inhabitants died. On May 30, 1632, during the battle at the Rhine fortress, the commander-in-chief of the imperial army Tilly died, on November 16, the Swedish king Gustav Adolf was killed in the battle of Lützen, on February 25, 1634, Wallenstein was shot dead by his own guards. In 1630-1635, the main events of the Thirty Years' War unfolded in Germany. Swedish victories alternated with defeats. The princes of Saxony, Brandenburg, and other Protestant principalities supported either the Swedes or the emperor. The conflicting parties did not have the strength to bend fortune to their own advantage. As a result, a peace treaty was signed between the emperor and the Protestant princes of Germany in Prague, according to which the execution of the Edict of Restitution was postponed for 40 years, the imperial army was formed by all the rulers of Germany, who lost the right to conclude separate alliances among themselves

  • 1635, May 30 - Peace of Prague
  • 1635, May 21 - France entered the Thirty Years' War to help Sweden, fearing the strengthening of the House of Habsburg
  • 1636, May 4 - the victory of the Swedish troops over the allied imperial army in the battle of Wittstock
  • 1636, December 22 - the son of Ferdinand II Ferdinand III became emperor
  • 1640, December 1 - Coup in Portugal. Portugal regained independence from Spain
  • 1642, December 4 - Cardinal Richilier, the "soul" of French foreign policy, died
  • 1643, May 19 - Battle of Rocroix, in which the French troops defeated the Spaniards, which marked the decline of Spain as a great power

    The last, Franco-Swedish stage of the Thirty Years' War had character traits world war. Military operations were conducted throughout Europe. The duchies of Savoy, Mantua, the Venetian Republic, and Hungary intervened in the war. The fighting was fought in Pomerania, Denmark, Austria, still in the German lands, in the Czech Republic, Burgundy, Moravia, the Netherlands, in the Baltic Sea. In England, supporting the Protestant states financially, broke out. Raging in Normandy popular uprising. Under these conditions, in 1644, peace negotiations began in the cities of Westphalia (a region in northwestern Germany) Osnabrück and Münster. Representatives of Sweden, the German princes and the emperor met in Osanbrück, and the ambassadors of the emperor, France, and the Netherlands met in Münster. Negotiations, the course of which was influenced by the results of incessant fighting, lasted 4 years

Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) - a war between two groups of the strongest European states. The Habsburg bloc (Austria and Spain), seeking to dominate "the entire Christian world", entered the struggle with Holland, Denmark, Russia, France and Sweden, which formed an anti-Habsburg coalition. Cause war became the policy of the Habsburgs and the desire of the papacy and Catholic circles to restore the power of the Roman Church in that part of Germany, where in the first half of the XVI century. the Reformation won. Causes: religious clash between Protestants and Catholics in Germany, then escalated into a struggle against the hegemony of the Habsburgs in Europe. There are four stages: Czech period (1618–1623). The second, Danish, period of T. century. (1625-1629). . Third, Swedish, period T. v. (1630- 1635) . Fourth, Franco-Swedish period of T. century. (1635-48 ). The Habsburgs were supported by the Pope, the Catholic princes of Germany (the Catholic League of 1609) and the Polish-Lithuanian state. The beginning of the war was the Czech uprising ("Prague defenestration") against the rule of the Habsburgs. In 1620, the Czech Republic was defeated, which gave. The Habsburgs had a tangible advantage. In 1625 Protestant Denmark opposed them. France tried to draw a strong Sweden into the war, but it did not succeed. The Catholic camp won a series of victories and forced Denmark in May 1629 to withdraw from the war. In 1628 clashes between France and the forces of the Habsburgs began in northern Italy, they lasted three years and proceeded extremely sluggishly. In 1630, Sweden entered the war, its troops went through all of Germany and on September 17, 1631 won a victory at Breitenfeld, in May 1632 they occupied Munich, and in November at Lützen they defeated the Habsburg army. In 1632, Russia entered the war with Poland, but, having not received the expected reinforcements, the Russian army was defeated, and in 1634 Russia concluded the Polyanovsky Peace. The Swedes belatedly moved to Poland, but in September 1634 at Nördlingen they were defeated by the combined forces of the Catholic coalition. In 1635, Sweden signed the Treaty of Paris with the Habsburgs, which was joined by some German Protestant princes, in the same year Sweden concluded the Treaty of Stumsdorf with Poland and the Treaty of Saint-Germain with France. The last, decisive period of the war began, during which France waged military operations against Spain and Germany. Gradually, military superiority leaned towards the opponents of the Catholic coalition. After a series of victories over the Habsburgs (under Rocroix, Nördlingen), France and Sweden proceeded to partition Germany. According to the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, Sweden received the mouths of the navigable rivers of Northern Germany, France - Alsace, Verdun, Metz and Toul; Holland gained independence from Spain. Swedish troops were in Germany for another 5 years, and the war between France and Spain continued until 1659. Results: The consequence of T. century. for Germany were: the strengthening and consolidation of its political. fragmentation, further enslavement of the peasantry. T. v. had a great influence on the development of permanent mercenary armies in the West. Europe. In recruitment, there has been a transition from voluntary recruitment to forced recruitment and, as a result, to the establishment of cane discipline in the armies. The final design was received in T. century. linear tactics, which was a progressive phenomenon, a new stage in the development of the military. art. In the war, there was a transition from a system of supplying troops through requisitions and indemnities to a system of their centralized supply from specially created warehouses and stores, the totality of which subsequently formed the base of the army. This had an impact on the way mercenary armies fought. Skillful maneuvering of troops in the theater of operations with the aim of cutting off the enemy from his bases began to be used to achieve success in the war. You-moved into T. century. talented commanders and commanders - Gustav II Adolf (in Sweden) and Turenne (in France) made a contribution to the construction and military. the art of standing mercenary armies, in the theoretical substantiation of the established methods and forms of weapons. struggle.

It was the largest of the nation-states.

In Europe, there were several explosive regions where the interests of the warring parties intersected. The largest number contradictions accumulated in the Holy Roman Empire, which, in addition to the traditional struggle between the emperor and the German princes, was split along religious lines. Another knot of contradictions was also directly related to the Empire -. The Protestant (and also, in part,) sought to turn it into their inland lake and gain a foothold on its southern coast, while the Catholic actively resisted the Swedish-Danish expansion. Other European countries advocated the freedom of Baltic trade. The third disputed region was fragmented Italy, for which France fought with. Spain had its opponents - (), which defended its independence in the war - years, and which challenged Spanish dominance at sea and encroached on the colonial possessions of the Habsburgs.

The brewing of war

periodization of the war. Opposing sides.

The Thirty Years' War is traditionally divided into four periods: Czech, Danish, Swedish and Franco-Swedish. Outside of Germany, there were several separate conflicts: the Polish-Swedish War, etc.

On the side of the Habsburgs were:, most of the Catholic principalities of Germany, united with,. On the side of the anti-Habsburg coalition, the Protestant principalities of Germany provided support, and. (the traditional enemy of the Habsburgs) at that time was busy with the war with and did not interfere in the European conflict. In general, the war turned out to be a clash of traditional conservative forces with growing nation-states.

The Habsburg bloc was more monolithic, the Austrian and Spanish houses kept in touch with each other, often conducting joint military operations. Wealthier Spain provided financial support to the emperor. There were major contradictions in the camp of their opponents, but they all receded into the background before the threat of a common enemy.

The course of the war

Czech period

In the autumn of the same year, 15,000 imperial soldiers led by and entered the Czech Republic. The Czech directory formed an army led by Count Thurn, in response to the requests of the Czechs, the Evangelical Union sent 2000 soldiers under the command of . Dampier was defeated and Buqua had to retreat to.

Thanks to the support of the Protestant part of the Austrian nobility, Count Thurn approached Vienna, but met with stubborn resistance. At this time, Buqua defeated Mansfeld near ( ), and Turn had to retreat to the rescue. At the end of the year, the Transylvanian prince with a strong army also moved against Vienna, but the Hungarian magnate Druget Gomonai hit him in the rear and forced him to retreat from Vienna. On the territory of Bohemia, protracted battles were fought with varying success.

Meanwhile, the Habsburgs made some diplomatic progress. Mr. Ferdinand was elected emperor. After that, he managed to get military support from Bavaria and Saxony. For this, the Elector of Saxony was promised Silesia and Lusatia, and the Duke of Bavaria was promised the possessions of the Elector of the Palatinate and his electoral rank. Spain sent a 25,000-strong army to the aid of the emperor under the command of .

Danish period

Another period of the war ended, but the Catholic League sought to return the Catholic possessions lost in the Peace of Augsburg. Under her pressure, the emperor issued the Restitution Edict (). According to it, 2 archbishoprics, 12 bishoprics and hundreds of monasteries were to be returned to the Catholics. Mansfeld and Bethlen Gabor, the first of the Protestant military leaders, died the same year. Only the port of Stralsund, abandoned by all the allies (except Sweden), held out against Wallenstein and the Emperor.

Swedish period

Both Catholic and Protestant princes, as well as very many of the Emperor's entourage, believed that Wallenstein wanted to seize power in Germany himself. In Ferdinand II dismissed Wallenstein. However, when the Swedish offensive began, I had to call him again.

Sweden was the last major state capable of changing the balance of power. , the king of Sweden, like Christian IV, sought to stop the Catholic expansion, as well as to establish his control over the Baltic coast of northern Germany. Like Christian IV, he was generously subsidized by the First Minister of the King of France.

Prior to this, Sweden was kept from the war by the war with Poland in the struggle for the Baltic coast. By the year Sweden ended the war and enlisted the support of Russia ().

The Swedish army was armed with advanced small arms and . It did not have mercenaries, and at first it did not rob the population. This fact has had a positive effect. In the year Sweden sent 6 thousand soldiers under the command of Stralsund to help. At the beginning of the year, Leslie captured the island, as a result, control was established over the Straits of Stralsund. A year, the king of Sweden, landed on the continent, at the mouth of the Oder.

Ferdinand II had been dependent on the Catholic League ever since he disbanded Wallenstein's army. At the Battle of Breitenfeld (1631), Gustavus Adolphus defeated the Catholic League under the command of Tilly. A year later, they met again, and again the Swedes won, and General Tilly died (). With the death of Tilly, Ferdinand II turned his attention back to Wallenstein.

Wallenstein and Gustav Adolf clashed at the fierce Battle of Lützen (1632), where the Swedes narrowly won, but Gustav Adolf died. In March, Sweden and the German Protestant principalities formed the Heilbronn League; the entirety of military and political power in Germany passed to an elected council headed by the Swedish Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna. But the lack of a single authoritative commander began to affect the Protestant troops, and the previously invincible Swedes suffered a serious defeat at the Battle of Nördlingen (1634).

The suspicions of Ferdinand II again prevailed when Wallenstein began to conduct his own negotiations with the Protestant princes, the leaders of the Catholic League and the Swedes (). In addition, he forced his officers to take a personal oath to him. On suspicion of treason, Wallenstein was arrested and killed ( ).

After that, the princes and the emperor began negotiations that ended the Swedish period of the war with the Peace of Prague (). Its terms provided for:

  • "Edict of Restitution" and the return of possessions to the framework of the Peace of Augsburg.
  • The unification of the army of the emperor and the armies of the German states into one army of the "Holy Roman Empire".
  • The ban on the formation of coalitions between princes.
  • Legalization.

This peace, however, could not suit France, as the Habsburgs, as a result, became stronger.

Franco-Swedish period

Having exhausted all diplomatic reserves, France entered the war itself (war on Spain was declared). With her intervention, the conflict finally lost its coloring of the religious, since the French were Catholics. France involved in the conflict its allies in Italy - the Duchy of Savoy, the Duchy of Mantua and the Venetian Republic. She managed to prevent new war between Sweden and, which allowed the Swedes to transfer significant reinforcements from behind the Vistula to Germany. The French attacked Lombardy and the Spanish Netherlands. In response, the Spanish-Bavarian army under the command of Prince Ferdinand of Spain crossed the Somme and entered Compiègne, while the imperial general Matthias Galas tried to capture Burgundy.

Other conflicts at the same time

  • War between Spain and France
  • Danish-Swedish War (1643-1645)

Peace of Westphalia

Under the terms of the peace, France received South Alsace and the Lorraine bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun, Sweden - the island of Rügen, Western Pomerania and the Duchy of Bremen, plus an indemnity of 5 million. Saxony - Lusatia, Brandenburg - Eastern Pomerania, the Archbishopric of Magdeburg and the Bishopric of Minden. Bavaria - Upper Palatinate, Bavarian duke became .

Consequences

The Thirty Years' War was the first war that affected all sections of the population. In Western memory, it has remained one of the most difficult pan-European conflicts in the series of predecessors of the World Wars. The greatest damage was done to Germany, where, according to some estimates, 5 million people died.

The immediate result of the war was that St. 300 petty Germanic states received full sovereignty with nominal membership in the Holy Roman Empire. This situation persisted until the end of the existence of the first empire.

The war did not lead to the automatic collapse of the Habsburgs, but changed the balance of power in Europe. Hegemony passed to France. The decline of Spain became evident. In addition, Sweden became a great power, significantly strengthening its position in the Baltic.

It is customary to count from the Peace of Westphalia modern era in international relations.

Military tactics and strategy

The study by military theorists of the successes of the Swedish troops under the leadership of Gustavus Adolphus gave its results. The advanced armies of Europe began to make the main bet on increasing the effectiveness of fire. The role of field artillery has increased. The structure of the infantry changed - by the end of the war, the musketeers began to outnumber the pikemen.

During the course of the war, armies were often forced to retreat due to lack of supplies even after victories. Many states, following the example of Gustavus Adolphus, began to create an organized supply of troops with ammunition and provisions. “Shops” (military stores) began to appear. The role of transport communications has increased.

Shops and communications, as well as the troops themselves, began to be seen as objects of attack and defense. A series of skillful maneuvers could interrupt the enemy's communications and force him to retreat without losing a single soldier. The concept of "maneuvering war" appeared.

At the same time, the Thirty Years' War was the height of the era of mercenary armies. Both camps used landskhets, recruited from various social strata and without regard to religion. They served for money and turned the military into a profession. The concept itself was born in the era of war. Its origin is associated with the name of one of the two famous commanders who bore the name Merode and took part in the Thirty Years' War: a German, General Count Johann Merode, or a Swede, Colonel Werner von Merode.

  • Ivonina L. I., Prokopiev A. Yu. Diplomacy of the Thirty Years' War. - Smolensk., 1996.