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Anyone who went to school remembers that one of the compulsory subjects to study was chemistry. You might like her, or you might not like her - it doesn't matter. And it is likely that much knowledge in this discipline has already been forgotten and is not used in life. However, everyone probably remembers D.I. Mendeleev’s table of chemical elements. For many, it has remained a multi-colored table, where certain letters are written in each square, indicating the names of chemical elements. But here we will not talk about chemistry as such, and describe hundreds of chemical reactions and processes, but we will tell you how the periodic table appeared in the first place - this story will be interesting to any person, and indeed to all those who are hungry for interesting and useful information .

A little background

Back in 1668, the outstanding Irish chemist, physicist and theologian Robert Boyle published a book in which many myths about alchemy were debunked, and in which he discussed the need to search for indecomposable chemical elements. The scientist also gave a list of them, consisting of only 15 elements, but admitted the idea that there may be more elements. This became the starting point not only in the search for new elements, but also in their systematization.

A hundred years later, the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier compiled a new list, which already included 35 elements. 23 of them were later found to be indecomposable. But the search for new elements continued by scientists around the world. And the main role in this process was played by the famous Russian chemist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev - he was the first to put forward the hypothesis that there could be a relationship between the atomic mass of elements and their location in the system.

Thanks to painstaking work and comparison of chemical elements, Mendeleev was able to discover the connection between the elements, in which they can be one, and their properties are not something taken for granted, but represent a periodically repeating phenomenon. As a result, in February 1869, Mendeleev formulated the first periodic law, and already in March his report “Relationship of properties with the atomic weight of elements” was presented to the Russian Chemical Society by the historian of chemistry N. A. Menshutkin. Then, in the same year, Mendeleev’s publication was published in the journal “Zeitschrift fur Chemie” in Germany, and in 1871, another German journal “Annalen der Chemie” published a new extensive publication by the scientist dedicated to his discovery.

Creating the periodic table

By 1869, the main idea had already been formed by Mendeleev, and in a fairly short time, but for a long time he could not formalize it into any orderly system that would clearly display what was what. In one of the conversations with his colleague A.A. Inostrantsev, he even said that he had everything already worked out in his head, but he couldn’t put everything into a table. After this, according to Mendeleev’s biographers, he began painstaking work on his table, which lasted three days without breaks for sleep. They tried all sorts of ways to organize elements into a table, and the work was also complicated by the fact that at that time science did not yet know about all the chemical elements. But, despite this, the table was still created, and the elements were systematized.

The legend of Mendeleev's dream

Many have heard the story that D.I. Mendeleev dreamed about his table. This version was actively disseminated by the aforementioned Mendeleev’s associate A. A. Inostrantsev as funny story with which he entertained his students. He said that Dmitry Ivanovich went to bed and in a dream clearly saw his table, in which all the chemical elements were arranged in the right order. After this, the students even joked that 40° vodka was discovered in the same way. But there were still real prerequisites for the story with sleep: as already mentioned, Mendeleev worked on the table without sleep or rest, and Inostrantsev once found him tired and exhausted. During the day, Mendeleev decided to take a short rest, and some time later, he woke up abruptly, immediately took a piece of paper and drew a ready-made table on it. But the scientist himself refuted this whole story with the dream, saying: “I’ve been thinking about it, maybe for twenty years, and you think: I was sitting and suddenly... it’s ready.” So the legend of the dream may be very attractive, but the creation of the table was only possible through hard work.

Further work

Between 1869 and 1871, Mendeleev developed the ideas of periodicity toward which the scientific community was inclined. And one of the important stages of this process was the understanding that any element in the system should have, based on the totality of its properties in comparison with the properties of other elements. Based on this, and also relying on the results of research into changes in glass-forming oxides, the chemist was able to make corrections to the values ​​of the atomic masses of some elements, including uranium, indium, beryllium and others.

Mendeleev, of course, wanted to quickly fill the empty cells that remained in the table, and in 1870 he predicted that chemical elements unknown to science would soon be discovered, the atomic masses and properties of which he was able to calculate. The first of these were gallium (discovered in 1875), scandium (discovered in 1879) and germanium (discovered in 1885). Then the predictions continued to be realized, and eight more new elements were discovered, including: polonium (1898), rhenium (1925), technetium (1937), francium (1939) and astatine (1942-1943). By the way, in 1900, D.I. Mendeleev and the Scottish chemist William Ramsay came to the conclusion that the table should also include elements of group zero - until 1962 they were called inert gases, and after that - noble gases.

Organization of the periodic table

Chemical elements in D.I. Mendeleev’s table they are arranged in rows, in accordance with the increase in their mass, and the length of the rows is selected so that the elements in them have similar properties. For example, noble gases such as radon, xenon, krypton, argon, neon and helium are difficult to react with other elements and also have low chemical reactivity, which is why they are located in the far right column. And the elements in the left column (potassium, sodium, lithium, etc.) react well with other elements, and the reactions themselves are explosive. Simply put, within each column, elements have similar properties that vary from one column to the next. All elements up to No. 92 are found in nature, and from No. 93 artificial elements begin, which can only be created in laboratory conditions.

In its original version, the periodic system was understood only as a reflection of the order existing in nature, and there were no explanations as to why everything should be this way. It was only when quantum mechanics appeared that the true meaning of the order of elements in the table became clear.

Lessons in the creative process

Speaking about what lessons of the creative process can be drawn from the entire history of the creation of the periodic table by D. I. Mendeleev, we can cite as an example the ideas of an English researcher in the field creative thinking Graham Wallace and the French scientist Henri Poincaré. Let's give them briefly.

According to the studies of Poincaré (1908) and Graham Wallace (1926), there are four main stages of creative thinking:

• Preparation– the stage of formulating the main problem and the first attempts to solve it;
• Incubation– a stage during which there is a temporary distraction from the process, but work on finding a solution to the problem is carried out on a subconscious level;
• Insight– the stage at which the intuitive solution is located. Moreover, this solution can be found in a situation that is completely unrelated to the problem;
• Examination– the stage of testing and implementation of a solution, at which this solution is tested and its possible further development.

As we can see, in the process of creating his table, Mendeleev intuitively followed precisely these four stages. How effective this is can be judged by the results, i.e. by the fact that the table was created. And given that its creation was a huge step forward not only for chemical science, but also for all of humanity, the above four stages can be applied both to the implementation of small projects and to the implementation of global plans. The main thing to remember is that not a single discovery, not a single solution to a problem can be found on its own, no matter how much we want to see them in a dream and no matter how much we sleep. In order for something to work out, it doesn’t matter whether it’s creating a table of chemical elements or developing a new marketing plan, you need to have certain knowledge and skills, as well as skillfully use your potential and work hard.

We wish you success in your endeavors and successful implementation of your plans!

For some time now, TheBat's built-in certificate database for SSL has stopped working correctly (it is not clear for what reason).

When checking the post, an error appears:

Unknown CA certificate
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This connection cannot be secret. Please
contact your server administrator.

And you are offered a choice of answers - YES / NO. And so every time you remove mail.

Solution

In this case, you need to replace the S/MIME and TLS implementation standard with Microsoft CryptoAPI in the TheBat settings!

Since I needed to combine all the files into one, I first converted everything doc files into a single pdf file (using the Acrobat program), and then transferred it to fb2 through an online converter. You can also convert files individually. The formats can be absolutely any (source) - doc, jpg, and even a zip archive!

The name of the site corresponds to the essence :) Online Photoshop.

Update May 2015

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In my life I came across the problem of repairing an electric stove. I’ve already done a lot of things, learned a lot, but somehow had little to do with tiles. It was necessary to replace the contacts on the regulators and burners. The question arose - how to determine the diameter of the burner on an electric stove?

The answer turned out to be simple. You don’t need to measure anything, you can easily determine by eye what size you need.

Smallest burner- this is 145 millimeters (14.5 centimeters)

Middle burner- this is 180 millimeters (18 centimeters).

And finally, the most large burner- this is 225 millimeters (22.5 centimeters).

It is enough to determine the size by eye and understand what diameter you need the burner. When I didn’t know this, I was worried about these dimensions, I didn’t know how to measure, which edge to navigate, etc. Now I'm wise :) I hope I helped you too!

In my life I faced such a problem. I think I'm not the only one.

He relied on the works of Robert Boyle and Antoine Lavuzier. The first scientist advocated the search for indecomposable chemical elements. Boyle listed 15 of these back in 1668.

Lavouzier added 13 more to them, but a century later. The search dragged on because there was no coherent theory of the connection between the elements. Finally, Dmitry Mendeleev entered the “game”. He decided that there was a connection between the atomic mass of substances and their place in the system.

This theory allowed the scientist to discover dozens of elements without discovering them in practice, but in nature. This was placed on the shoulders of descendants. But now it’s not about them. Let's dedicate the article to the great Russian scientist and his table.

The history of the creation of the periodic table

Mendeleev table began with the book “Relationship of properties with the atomic weight of elements.” The work was published in the 1870s. At the same time, the Russian scientist spoke before the country’s chemical society and sent out the first version of the table to colleagues from abroad.

Before Mendeleev, 63 elements were discovered by various scientists. Our compatriot began by comparing their properties. First of all, I worked with potassium and chlorine. Then, I took up the group of metals of the alkali group.

The chemist acquired a special table and element cards to play them like solitaire, looking for the necessary matches and combinations. As a result, an insight came: - the properties of components depend on the mass of their atoms. So, elements of the periodic table lined up.

The chemistry maestro's discovery was the decision to leave empty spaces in these rows. The periodicity of the difference between atomic masses forced the scientist to assume that not all elements are known to humanity. The weight gaps between some of the “neighbors” were too large.

That's why, periodic table became like a chess field, with an abundance of “white” cells. Time has shown that they were indeed waiting for their “guests”. For example, they became inert gases. Helium, neon, argon, krypton, radioactivity and xenon were discovered only in the 30s of the 20th century.

Now about the myths. It is widely believed that periodic chemical table appeared to him in a dream. These are the machinations of university teachers, or rather, one of them - Alexander Inostrantsev. This is a Russian geologist who lectured at the St. Petersburg University of Mining.

Inostrantsev knew Mendeleev and visited him. One day, exhausted from the search, Dmitry fell asleep right in front of Alexander. He waited until the chemist woke up and saw Mendeleev grab a piece of paper and write down the final version of the table.

In fact, the scientist simply did not have time to do this before Morpheus captured him. However, Inostrantsev wanted to amuse his students. Based on what he saw, the geologist came up with a story, which grateful listeners quickly spread to the masses.

Features of the periodic table

Since the first version in 1969 periodic table has been modified more than once. Thus, with the discovery of noble gases in the 1930s, it was possible to derive a new dependence of elements - on their atomic numbers, and not on mass, as the author of the system stated.

The concept of “atomic weight” was replaced by “ atomic number" It was possible to study the number of protons in the nuclei of atoms. This figure is the serial number of the element.

20th century scientists studied and electronic structure atoms. It also affects the periodicity of elements and is reflected in later editions Periodic tables. Photo The list shows that the substances in it are arranged as their atomic weight increases.

They did not change the fundamental principle. The mass increases from left to right. At the same time, the table is not single, but divided into 7 periods. Hence the name of the list. The period is a horizontal row. Its beginning is typical metals, its end is elements with non-metallic properties. The decrease is gradual.

There are large and small periods. The first ones are at the beginning of the table, there are 3 of them. A period of 2 elements opens the list. Next come two columns, each containing 8 items. The remaining 4 periods are large. The 6th is the longest, with 32 elements. In the 4th and 5th there are 18 of them, and in the 7th - 24.

You can count how many elements are in the table Mendeleev. There are 112 titles in total. Namely names. There are 118 cells, and there are variations of the list with 126 fields. There are still empty cells for undiscovered elements that do not have names.

Not all periods fit on one line. Large periods consist of 2 rows. The amount of metals in them outweighs. Therefore, the bottom lines are completely dedicated to them. A gradual decrease from metals to inert substances is observed in the upper rows.

Pictures of the periodic table divided and vertical. This groups in the periodic table, there are 8 of them. Elements similar in chemical properties. They are divided into main and secondary subgroups. The latter begin only from the 4th period. The main subgroups also include elements of small periods.

The essence of the periodic table

Names of elements in the periodic table– this is 112 positions. The essence of their arrangement into a single list is the systematization of the primary elements. People began to struggle with this back in ancient times.

Aristotle was one of the first to understand what all things are made of. He took as a basis the properties of substances - cold and heat. Empidocles identified 4 fundamental principles according to the elements: water, earth, fire and air.

Metals in the periodic table, like other elements, are the same fundamental principles, but with modern point vision. The Russian chemist managed to discover most of the components of our world and suggest the existence of still unknown primary elements.

It turns out that pronunciation of the periodic table– voicing a certain model of our reality, breaking it down into its components. However, learning them is not so easy. Let's try to make the task easier by describing a couple of effective methods.

How to learn the periodic table

Let's start with modern method. Computer scientists have developed a number of flash games to help memorize Periodic List. Project participants are asked to find elements using different options, for example, name, atomic mass, or letter designation.

The player has the right to choose the field of activity - only part of the table, or all of it. It is also our choice to exclude element names and other parameters. This makes the search difficult. For the advanced, there is also a timer, that is, the training is carried out at speed.

Game conditions make learning numbers of elements in the Mendleyev table not boring, but entertaining. Excitement awakens, and it becomes easier to systematize knowledge in your head. Those who do not accept computer flash projects offer a more traditional way of memorizing a list.

It is divided into 8 groups, or 18 (according to the 1989 edition). For ease of memorization, it is better to create several separate tables rather than work on a whole version. Visual images matched to each of the elements also help. You should rely on your own associations.

Thus, iron in the brain can be correlated, for example, with a nail, and mercury with a thermometer. Is the element name unfamiliar? We use the method of suggestive associations. , for example, let’s make up the words “toffee” and “speaker” from the beginnings.

Characteristics of the periodic table Don't study in one sitting. Exercises of 10-20 minutes a day are recommended. It is recommended to start by remembering only the basic characteristics: the name of the element, its designation, atomic mass and serial number.

Schoolchildren prefer to hang the periodic table above their desk, or on a wall they often look at. The method is good for people with a predominance of visual memory. Data from the list is involuntarily remembered even without cramming.

Teachers also take this into account. As a rule, they do not force you to memorize the list; they allow you to look at it even during tests. Constantly looking at the table is equivalent to the effect of a printout on the wall, or writing cheat sheets before exams.

When starting to study, let us remember that Mendeleev did not immediately remember his list. Once, when a scientist was asked how he discovered the table, the answer was: “I’ve been thinking about it for maybe 20 years, but you think: I sat there and suddenly it’s ready.” The periodic system is painstaking work that cannot be completed in a short time.

Science does not tolerate haste, because it leads to misconceptions and annoying mistakes. So, at the same time as Mendeleev, Lothar Meyer also compiled the table. However, the German was a little flawed in his list and was not convincing in proving his point. Therefore, the public recognized the work of the Russian scientist, and not his fellow chemist from Germany.

Chemistry is fascinating, but difficult subject. And if the school did not yet have supplies for conducting experiments, then we can say that it completely passed by. But there is something that every person should at least minimally understand. This is the periodic table.

For schoolchildren, learning it is real torture. If they see her in dreams, then only nightmare ones. There are so many elements, each with its own number... But one mother of many children came up with an entertaining way to how to learn the periodic table. It is suitable for both children and adults, and the reaction will happily tell you about it "So simple!".

Periodic Table of Chemical Elements

As mother of four Karin Tripp shows, with the right approach, it is possible to learn anything. To join studying chemistry even small children, she decided to turn the periodic table of elements into a battlefield for naval battles.

The game contains four pages with the periodic table - two for each player. Each player needs to draw his ships on one table, and on the other, mark his shots and the enemy’s damaged ships with dots.

The rules of naval combat are the same as in the classic game. Only in order to shoot down an opponent’s boat, you need to name not a letter with a number, but the corresponding chemical element.

This technique will allow children not only to learn the names of chemical elements. It promotes memory development and logical thinking. After all, children will analyze serial numbers and colors.

To make it easier for children to find the right element at first, the rows and columns should be numbered. But, according to Karin, her children, after just a few days of playing “chemical sea battle,” began to understand the periodic table perfectly. They even knew the atomic masses and serial numbers of the elements.

Over time, the rules of the game can become more complicated. For example, placing a ship only within one family of chemical elements.

Even the eight-year-old daughter of an inventive mother who has not yet studied chemistry at school enjoys playing this game. And for adults, this is a great way to have fun.

All pages of the periodic table for playing sea battle can be printed on a regular or color printer and used an unlimited number of times.

The periodic table is one of greatest discoveries humanity, which made it possible to organize knowledge about the world around us and discover new chemical elements. It is necessary for schoolchildren, as well as for anyone interested in chemistry. In addition, this scheme is indispensable in other areas of science.

This diagram contains everything known to man elements, and they are grouped depending on atomic mass and atomic number. These characteristics affect the properties of the elements. In total, there are 8 groups in the short version of the table; the elements included in one group have very similar properties. The first group contains hydrogen, lithium, potassium, copper, whose Latin pronunciation in Russian is cuprum. And also argentum - silver, cesium, gold - aurum and francium. The second group contains beryllium, magnesium, calcium, zinc, followed by strontium, cadmium, barium, and the group ends with mercury and radium.

The third group includes boron, aluminum, scandium, gallium, followed by yttrium, indium, lanthanum, and the group ends with thallium and actinium. The fourth group begins with carbon, silicon, titanium, continues with germanium, zirconium, tin and ends with hafnium, lead and rutherfordium. The fifth group contains elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, vanadium, below are arsenic, niobium, antimony, then comes tantalum, bismuth and completes the group with dubnium. The sixth begins with oxygen, followed by sulfur, chromium, selenium, then molybdenum, tellurium, then tungsten, polonium and seaborgium.

In the seventh group, the first element is fluorine, followed by chlorine, manganese, bromine, technetium, followed by iodine, then rhenium, astatine and bohrium. The last group is the most numerous. It includes gases such as helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon. This group also includes metals iron, cobalt, nickel, rhodium, palladium, ruthenium, osmium, iridium, and platinum. Next come hannium and meitnerium. The elements that form the actinide series and lanthanide series. They have similar properties to lanthanum and actinium.

This scheme includes all types of elements, which are divided into 2 large groups - metals and non-metals, having different properties. How to determine whether an element belongs to one group or another will be helped by a conventional line that must be drawn from boron to astatine. It should be remembered that such a line can only be drawn in full version tables. All elements that are above this line and are located in the main subgroups are considered non-metals. And those below, in the main subgroups, are metals. Metals are also substances found in side subgroups. There are special pictures and photos in which you can familiarize yourself in detail with the position of these elements. It is worth noting that those elements that are on this line exhibit the same properties of both metals and non-metals.

A separate list is made up of amphoteric elements, which have dual properties and can form 2 types of compounds as a result of reactions. At the same time, they manifest both basic and acid properties. The predominance of certain properties depends on the reaction conditions and substances with which the amphoteric element reacts.

It is worth noting that this scheme, in its traditional design of good quality, is colored. Wherein different colors for ease of orientation are indicated main and secondary subgroups. Elements are also grouped depending on the similarity of their properties.
However, nowadays, along with the color scheme, the black and white periodic table of Mendeleev is very common. This type is used for black and white printing. Despite its apparent complexity, working with it is just as convenient if you take into account some of the nuances. So, distinguish main subgroup In this case, it can be distinguished from a secondary one by differences in shades that are clearly noticeable. In addition, in the color version, elements with the presence of electrons on different layers are indicated different colors.
It is worth noting that in a single-color design it is not very difficult to navigate the scheme. For this purpose, the information indicated in each individual cell of the element will be sufficient.

The Unified State Exam today is the main type of test at the end of school, which means that preparation for it must be given Special attention. Therefore, when choosing final exam in chemistry, you need to pay attention to materials that can help you pass it. As a rule, schoolchildren are allowed to use some tables during the exam, in particular, the periodic table in good quality. Therefore, in order for it to bring only benefits during testing, attention should be paid in advance to its structure and the study of the properties of the elements, as well as their sequence. You also need to learn use the black and white version of the table so as not to encounter some difficulties in the exam.

In addition to the main table characterizing the properties of elements and their dependence on atomic mass, there are other diagrams that can help in the study of chemistry. For example, there are tables of solubility and electronegativity of substances. The first can be used to determine how soluble a particular compound is in water at normal temperature. In this case, anions are located horizontally - negatively charged ions, and cations - that is, positively charged ions - are located vertically. To find out degree of solubility of one or another compound, it is necessary to find its components using the table. And at the place of their intersection there will be the necessary designation.

If it is the letter "r", then the substance is completely soluble in water in normal conditions. If the letter “m” is present, the substance is slightly soluble, and if the letter “n” is present, it is almost insoluble. If there is a “+” sign, the compound does not form a precipitate and reacts with the solvent without residue. If a "-" sign is present, it means that such a substance does not exist. Sometimes you can also see the “?” sign in the table, then this means that the degree of solubility of this compound is not known for certain. Electronegativity of elements can vary from 1 to 8; there is also a special table to determine this parameter.

Another useful table is the metal activity series. All metals are located in it according to increasing degrees of electrochemical potential. The series of metal voltages begins with lithium and ends with gold. It is believed that the further to the left a metal occupies a place in a given row, the more active it is in chemical reactions. Thus, the most active metal Lithium is considered an alkaline metal. The list of elements also contains hydrogen towards the end. It is believed that the metals located after it are practically inactive. These include elements such as copper, mercury, silver, platinum and gold.

Periodic table pictures in good quality

This scheme is one of the largest achievements in the field of chemistry. Wherein there are many types of this table– short version, long, as well as extra-long. The most common is the short table, but the long version of the diagram is also common. It is worth noting that the short version of the circuit is not currently recommended for use by IUPAC.
In total there were More than a hundred types of tables have been developed, differing in presentation, form and graphical presentation. They are used in different fields of science, or are not used at all. Currently, new circuit configurations continue to be developed by researchers. The main option is either a short or long circuit in excellent quality.