1. The principle of relativity of classical mechanics (classical physics of Newton), otherwise - the Galilean principle of relativity, states:

a) invariance of phenomena in all inertial frames of reference; b) the possibility of uniformly accelerated motion; c) the existence of circular or elliptical motion of planets solar system; d) relativity of time;

e) relativity of space; f) the absoluteness of space-time and interval.

2. Corpuscularity (discreteness) and continuity (continuity, continuity) of the properties of matter (substance and field) differ significantly in:

a) vacuum; b) microworld; c) the macrocosm; d) antiworld; e) hyperspace; f) megaworld;

g) near the Cosmological Horizon.

3. Revolution in natural science (physics) of the 17th century. occurred in connection with the discovery:

a) the law of inertia; b) laws of dynamics; c) laws of planetary motion; e) relativity of time and space; e) atoms and molecules.

4. Indicate the correct statement regarding body weight:

a) body weight is determined by the amount of matter in the body and does not depend on external conditions;

b) the weight of a person in an elevator rising with acceleration upwards is greater than in a resting elevator; c) the weight of a parachutist descending to the ground on a parachute is zero; d) the force of gravity towards the Earth completely determines the weight of the body.

5. What is the name of a physical quantity that can neither be created nor destroyed, which exists in various forms, which can turn into each other?

a) mass; b) electric charge; c) energy; d) entropy; e) spin; e) isotopic spin.

6. Is a laboratory located on the Earth's surface really an inertial reporting system? Which answer is correct and fully justified?

a) no, it is not, since the surface of the Earth does not correspond to a spherical surface;

b) yes, it is, since locally within the laboratory the geometry of space is Euclidean; c) is inertial for observing all phenomena only on the surface of the Earth; d) is not inertial due to the rotation of the Earth around its axis;

e) yes, it is inertial, since the planet Earth moves around the Sun uniformly.

7. The existing symmetries in the world of physical objects, which was first mathematically established by Emmy Noether, generate as a consequence:

a) preservation of certain physical quantities objects; b) the corresponding invariance of properties; c) absoluteness of all physical properties; d) the relativity of all physical properties.

8. For gravitational interaction, as a certain physical phenomenon, the law for which was first established by Isaac Newton, is not characteristic:

a) long-range action; b) repulsion; V) low intensity; d) attraction.

9. Indicate the correct formulation of Galileo's principle of relativity (the classical principle of relativity):

a) none natural phenomena do not allow to establish the difference between the states of rest and uniform rectilinear motion of a physical system; b) all inertial systems are equivalent; c) no mechanical experiments can distinguish the fact of uniform rectilinear motion from a state of rest; d) everything physical phenomena in isolated (inertial) systems proceed in the same way.

10. The principles of classical natural science include the principle:

a) additionality; b) constancy of the speed of light; c) Galilean principle of relativity; d) Pauli's ban; e) equivalence of inert and heavy masses.

11. Find the correspondence between the generally accepted mathematical formalisms of classical mechanics and the conjugate physical quantities used in them (left and right columns):

a) Lagrangian formalism of coordinate and momentum;

b) Hamiltonian formalism of speed and time;

c) Lagrangian formalism of coordinate and velocity;

d) Hamiltonian formalism of acceleration and momentum;

e) Hamilton formalism coordinate and acceleration.

12. An increase in entropy in any physical system leads to:

a) an increase in temperature; b) increase in disorder; d) transition to a stationary state; e) the appearance of signs of self-organization.

13. The system undergoes structural rearrangement in such a way that disorder increases. Which statement corresponds to the ongoing process?

a) the entropy of the system increases; b) the entropy of the system decreases; c) the entropy of the system does not change; d) heat is released from the system.

14. Systems that exchange matter, energy and information with the environment are called:

a) non-stationary; b) dynamic; c) open; d) self-organizing.

15. Which one statement given is incorrect?

a) the total mechanical energy of the particle system is conserved; b) internal friction forces in closed system particles can only reduce the total mechanical energy of the system; c) the kinetic energy of a nonrelativistic particle is proportional to the square of the particle's velocity; d) the potential energy of a compressed spring is proportional to the square of the linear compression.

16. A measure of the randomness of the movement of molecules in physics and chemistry is:

a) temperature; b) momentum; c) energy; d) entropy; e) speed of movement; e) enthalpy.

17. The value that determines the amount of movement in the system is:

a) energy; b) speed; c) impulse; d) energy; e) square of speed; e) acceleration.

18. Which one statement is true?

a) energy without loss can be converted from one form to any other;

b) only the absolute value of energy has physical meaning; c) the total energy of the isolated system changes; d) the potential energy of a falling body is always greater than its kinetic energy.

19. Which one statement is correct?

a) entropy can be converted into energy; b) any physical process in an isolated system, it reduces the entropy of the system; c) a decrease in entropy always increases the energy of the system; d) in all biological systems there is no entropy.

20. An increase in the process of disorder in the system corresponds to:

a) an increase in entropy; b) decrease in entropy; c) entropy remains unchanged;

d) increase in energy; e) decrease in energy.

21. The process of transferring internal energy without committing mechanical work, is called:

a) heat transfer; b) Brownian motion; c) photosynthesis; d) the Compton effect.

22. One statement regarding the energy state of the system is true:

a) during a reversible process, the system returns to its original state;

b) the system is closed if it exchanges energy with the environment;

c) the system is closed if it exchanges matter with the environment;

d) the system is open if diffusion processes occur in it.

23. Are there any statements about the processes in the system that are correct, which:

a) a system with greater order has higher entropy and vice versa;

b) any physical process in an isolated system increases the entropy of the system;

c) all real processes are reversible in time; d) all statements are true.

24. Are there any correct statements regarding the energy of the system?

a) energy can be converted from one form to another without loss; b) the total energy of the isolated system does not change; c) all real processes are reversible in time;

d) all statements are true; d) there are no true statements.

25. Which concept of action in natural science is more ancient?

a) short action; b) long-range; c) short range; d) relative action.

26. Matter in natural science is understood as:

a) a physical system that has infinite a large number degrees of freedom;

b) a type of matter that has rest mass; c) a special state of space necessary for the transmission of interactions; d) an elastic stationary medium that transmits interaction and electromagnetic waves.

27. A quantitative measure of interaction is:

a) impulse; b) strength; c) energy; d) angular (rotational) momentum; d) entropy.

28. The integrity of matter, as a collection of atoms and molecules, is ensured mainly by:

a) strong interaction; b) weak interaction; c) electromagnetic interaction; d) gravitational interaction.

29. Newton's laws are true:

a) only in inertial reference systems; b) only under Earth conditions; c) only in the absence of friction forces; d) without any additional conditions.

30. The force that throws a body out of balance is proportional to:

a) potential energy of the body; b) angular momentum; c) acceleration of the body; d) body speed;

e) the square of the speed.

31. Number of classical parameters (or degrees of freedom) of the state material point:

a) six; b) five; at four; d) three; e) two; e) one.

32. Is the law of conservation of mechanical energy accepted in classical natural science fulfilled in practice?

a) yes, since energy must be conserved; b) no, since in any system there is friction and transformation mechanical movement in heating; c) no, since everything depends on the reference system; d) yes, since we usually ignore minor measurement errors.

33. Indicate those physical quantities for which conservation laws exist:

a) mass; b) impulse; c) time; d) angular momentum; e) energy; f) entropy; g) volume;

h) electric charge; i) moment of inertia; j) acceleration.

34. Symmetry in the form of homogeneity of time manifests itself as:

35. Symmetry in the form of homogeneity of space manifests itself as:

a) law of conservation of momentum; b) the law of conservation of angular momentum; c) the law of conservation of energy; d) the law of conservation of matter.

36. The laws of physics are based on...

37. Source gravitational force(interaction of bodies) is:

a) density of the substance; b) mass; c) weight; d) time; e) impulse; e) speed.

38. What (what symmetry) is energy conservation related to?

a) isotropy of space; b) homogeneity of time; c) homogeneity of space;

d) homogeneity of space-time; e) isotropy of time.

39. The law of conservation of momentum follows from:

a) Galileo’s principle of relativity; b) immutability physical laws during parallel shifts (translations or movements) in space; c) homogeneity of space; d) homogeneity of time; e) the invariance of physical laws with parallel shifts in time.

40. The law of conservation of energy follows from:

a) the principle of relativity; b) Noether’s theorem; c) the invariance of physical laws with parallel shifts in time (temporal translations); d) from the invariance of physical laws with parallel shifts in space; e) homogeneity of time.

41. The formation of any structures is always associated with...

a) an increase in the entropy value; b) release and dissipation of binding energy;

c) absorption of binding energy; d) increase in binding energy.

42. The quality of energy as a result of its transformation into heat...

a) fluctuates; b) decreases; c) increases; d) remains unchanged.

43. Establish a correspondence between the symmetries of space and time and the following laws of conservation of basic physical quantities (left and right columns):

44. Indicate the sequence of entropy increase when changing state of aggregation the same substance:

a) plasma; b) gas; c) liquid; d) solid body.

45. Liquid turns into vapor, entropy at the same time...

46. ​​Liquid turns into a solid, entropy at the same time...

a) rises b) decreases; c) does not change; d) disappears (turns to zero).

47. Gas turns into liquid, entropy at the same time...

a) rises b) goes down; c) stays the same d) disappears (turns to zero).

48. Determine the position related to the mechanical picture of the world:

a) the interaction under study satisfies the principle of short-range action; b) the world is represented by continuous objects; c) the picture of the phenomena being studied is clearly determined by cause-and-effect (deterministic) relationships; d) the leading method in mechanics is the method of mathematical modeling.

49. The leading principle of classical mechanics is:

a) Galileo’s principle of relativity; b) the principle of short-range action; c) the Heisenberg uncertainty relation; d) Maupertuis' principle of virtual displacements.

50. The main mathematical formalisms of classical mechanics are:

a) newtons; b) Hamiltonians; c) Lagrangian; d) Eulers; e) Galilei; e) Laplace.

51. The essence of the mechanistic picture of the world is conveyed by the provisions on:

a) transfer of interaction through short-range interaction; b) transmission of interaction through long-range action; c) the uniqueness of continuous objects in the material world; d) the uniqueness of corpuscular objects in the material world.

52. The essence of the short-range process is that any of the known interactions is transmitted:

a) instantly between any objects; b) instantly only to the nearest object;

c) between neighboring objects with finite speed; d) from object to object at a speed not exceeding the speed of light in vacuum.

53. Establish the only position that relates exclusively to the mechanical picture of the world:

a) the transfer of interaction is based on the principle of short-range action;

b) the dominant idea is given to the continuous properties of matter;

c) the corpuscular-wave properties of matter appear;

d) the chain of events is uniquely determined by cause-and-effect relationships;

e) the basis of representation is the ideality of objects of knowledge.

54. The laws of conservation of physics are based on...

a) principles of symmetry; b) facts established empirically; c) expressing hypotheses; d) analysis of the starting points.

The generally accepted formulation of the second law of thermodynamics in physics states that in closed systems energy tends to be distributed evenly, i.e. the system tends to a state of maximum entropy.

A distinctive feature of living bodies, ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole is the ability to create and maintain a high degree of internal order, i.e. states with low entropy. Concept entropy characterizes that part of the total energy of the system that cannot be used to produce work. Unlike free energy, it is degraded, waste energy. If we denote free energy by F and entropy via S, then the total energy of the system E will be equal to:

E=F+ST;

where T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin.

According to the definition of physicist E. Schrödinger: “life is the ordered and regular behavior of matter, based not only on one tendency to move from orderliness to disorder, but also partially on the existence of orderliness, which is maintained all the time... - ... means, with the help which the organism constantly maintains itself at a sufficiently high level of order (and at a sufficiently low level of entropy), in reality consists in the continuous extraction of order from the environment.”

In higher animals we are well aware of the type of orderliness on which they feed, namely: an extremely ordered state of matter in more or less complex organic compounds serves as their food. After use, animals return these substances in a very degraded form, however, not completely degraded, since they can still be absorbed by plants.

For plants, a powerful source of " negative entropy» — negentropy - is sunlight.

The property of living systems to extract order from their environment has given some scientists reason to conclude that for these systems the second law of thermodynamics is not satisfied. However, the second law also has another, more general formulation, valid for open systems, including living ones. She says that the efficiency of spontaneous energy conversion is always less 100%. According to the second law of thermodynamics, maintaining life on Earth without an influx of solar energy is impossible.

Let us turn again to E. Schrödinger: “Everything that happens in nature means an increase in entropy in the part of the Universe where this takes place. Likewise, a living organism continuously increases its entropy, or produces positive entropy, and thus approaches a dangerous state - maximum entropy, which represents death. He can avoid this state, i.e. stay alive only by constantly extracting negative entropy from the environment.”

Energy transfer in ecosystems and its losses

As is known, the transfer of food energy from its source - plants - through a number of organisms, which occurs by eating some organisms by others, passes through the food chain. With each successive transfer, most (80-90%) of the potential energy is lost, turning into heat. The transition to each next link reduces the available energy by about 10 times. The ecological energy pyramid always narrows at the top, since energy is lost at each subsequent level (Fig. 1).

The efficiency of natural systems is much lower than the efficiency of electric motors and other engines. In living systems, a lot of “fuel” is spent on “repairs”, which is not taken into account when calculating the efficiency of engines. Any increase in the efficiency of a biological system results in an increase in the costs of maintaining them in a stable state. An ecological system can be compared to a machine, from which you cannot “squeeze” more than it is capable of delivering. There always comes a limit, after which the gains from increased efficiency are negated by increased costs and the risk of system collapse. Direct removal by humans or animals of more than 30-50% of annual vegetation growth can reduce the ability of an ecosystem to resist stress.

One of the limits of the biosphere is the gross production of photosynthesis, and a person will have to adjust his needs to it until it can be proven that the absorption of energy through photosynthesis can be greatly increased without endangering the balance of other, more important resources in the life cycle. Now only about half of all radiant energy is absorbed (mainly in the visible part of the spectrum) and, at most, about 5% - under the most favorable conditions it is converted into a product of photosynthesis.

Rice. 1. Pyramid of energies. E is the energy released with metabolites; D = natural deaths; W—feces; R - breathing

In artificial ecosystems, in order to obtain a larger harvest, people are forced to expend additional energy. It is necessary for industrialized agriculture, since it is required by crops specially created for it. "Industrialized (using the energy of fossil fuels) Agriculture(as practiced in Japan) can produce 4 times higher yield per hectare than agriculture in which all the work is done by people and domestic animals (as in India), but it requires 10 times more inputs of various types of resources and energy."

The closure of production cycles according to the energy-entropy parameter is theoretically impossible, since the flow of energy processes (in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics) is accompanied by energy degradation and an increase in the entropy of the natural environment. The action of the second law of thermodynamics is expressed in the fact that energy transformations proceed in one direction, in contrast to the cyclical movement of substances.

At present, we are witnessing that an increase in the level of organization and diversity of a cultural system reduces its entropy, but increases the entropy of the natural environment, causing its degradation. To what extent can these consequences of the second law of thermodynamics be eliminated? There are two ways.

First way is to reduce the loss of energy used by man during its various transformations. This path is effective to the extent that it does not lead to a decrease in the stability of the system through which the energy flow passes (as is known, in ecological systems an increase in the number of trophic levels contributes to an increase in their stability, but at the same time contributes to an increase in energy losses passing through the system).

Second way consists in the transition from an increase in the orderliness of the cultural system to an increase in the orderliness of the entire biosphere. Society in this case increases the organization of the natural environment by lowering the organization of the part of that nature that is outside the biosphere of the Earth.

Transformation of substances and energy in the biosphere as an open system

Of fundamental importance for understanding the dynamics of biospheric processes and the constructive solution of specific environmental problems have the theory and methods of open systems, which are one of the most important achievements of the 20th century.

According to the classical theory of thermodynamics, physical and other systems of inanimate nature evolve in the direction of increasing their disorder, destruction and disorganization. At the same time, the energy measure of disorganization, expressed by entropy, tends to continuously increase. The question arises: how, from inanimate nature, whose systems tend to disorganize, could Live nature, whose systems in their evolution strive to improve and complicate their organization? Moreover, in society as a whole, progress is obvious. Consequently, the original concept of classical physics - the concept of a closed or isolated system does not reflect reality and is in clear contradiction with the results of research in biology and social sciences (for example, gloomy forecasts of the “heat death” of the Universe). And it is quite natural that in the 1960s a new (nonlinear) thermodynamics appeared, based on the concept of irreversible processes. The place of a closed, isolated system in it is occupied by a fundamentally different fundamental concept of an open system, which is capable of exchanging matter, energy and information with the environment. The means by which an organism maintains itself at a sufficiently high level of order (and at a sufficiently low level of entropy) actually consists in continuously extracting order from the environment.

Open system, thus, borrows from the outside either new substance or fresh energy and at the same time releases used substance and waste energy into the external environment, i.e. she cannot remain closed. During the process of evolution, the system constantly exchanges energy with the environment and produces entropy. In this case, entropy characterizing the degree of disorder in the system, unlike closed systems, is not accumulated, but is transported into environment. The logical conclusion is that an open system cannot be in equilibrium, since it requires a continuous supply of energy or a substance rich in it from the external environment. According to E. Schrödinger, due to such interaction the system draws order from the environment and thereby introduces disorder into it.

Interactions between ecosystems

If there is a connection between two systems, a transition of entropy from one system to another is possible, the vector of which is determined by the values ​​of the thermodynamic potentials. This is where the qualitative difference between isolated and open systems comes into play. In an isolated system the situation remains nonequilibrium. The processes continue until entropy reaches a maximum.

In open systems, the outflow of entropy outward can balance its growth in the system itself. These kinds of conditions contribute to the emergence and maintenance of a stationary state (a type of dynamic equilibrium), called current equilibrium. In a steady state, the entropy of an open system remains constant, although it is not maximum. Constancy is maintained due to the fact that the system continuously extracts free energy from the environment.

The dynamics of entropy in an open system is described by the equation I.R. Prigogine (Belgian physicist, laureate Nobel Prize 1977):

ds/dt = ds 1 /dt + ds e /dt,

Where ds 1/dt- characterization of the entropy of irreversible processes within the system itself; ds e /dt- characteristic of the exchange of entropy between a biological system and the environment.

Self-regulation of fluctuating ecosystems

The total decrease in entropy as a result of exchange with external environment under certain conditions may exceed its domestic production. Instability of the previous disordered state appears. Large-scale fluctuations arise and increase to the macroscopic level. In this case it is possible self-regulation, i.e. the emergence of certain structures from chaotic formations. Such structures can successively transform into an increasingly more ordered state (dissipative structures). Entropy decreases in them.

Dissipative structures are formed as a result of the development of their own internal instabilities in the system (as a result of self-organization), which distinguishes them from the organization of ordered structures formed under the influence of external causes.

Ordered (dissipative) structures that spontaneously arise from disorder and chaos as a result of the process of self-organization are also realized in ecological systems. An example is the spatially ordered arrangement of bacteria in nutrient media, observed under certain conditions, as well as temporary structures in the “predator-prey” system, characterized by a stable regime of fluctuations with a certain periodicity in the number of animal populations.

Self-organization processes are based on the exchange of energy and mass with the environment. This makes it possible to maintain an artificially created state of current equilibrium, when losses due to dissipation are compensated from the outside. With the arrival of new energy or matter in the system, disequilibrium increases. Ultimately, the previous relationships between the elements of the system that determine its structure are destroyed. New connections are established between the elements of the system, leading to cooperative processes, i.e. to the collective behavior of its elements. This is general scheme self-organization processes in open systems, called science synergetics.

The concept of self-organization, shedding new light on the relationship between inanimate and living nature, allows us to better understand that the entire world around us and the Universe are a set of self-organizing processes that underlie any evolutionary development.

It is advisable to pay attention to the following circumstance. Based on the random nature of the fluctuations, it follows that the appearance of something new in the world is always due to the action of random factors.

The emergence of self-organization is based on the principle of positive feedback, according to which changes that arise in the system are not eliminated, but accumulate. Ultimately, this is what leads to the emergence of a new order and a new structure.

Bifurcation point - an impulse for the development of the biosphere along a new path

The open systems of the physical Universe (which includes our biosphere) continuously fluctuate and at a certain stage can reach bifurcation points. The essence of bifurcation is most clearly illustrated by a fairy-tale knight standing at a crossroads. At some point along the way there is a fork in the path where a decision must be made. When the bifurcation point is reached, it is fundamentally impossible to predict in which direction the system will further develop: whether it will go into a chaotic state or acquire a new, more high level organizations.

For a bifurcation point, it is an impulse to its development along a new, unknown path. It is difficult to predict what place human society will take in it, but the biosphere will most likely continue its development.

A measure of uncertainty in the distribution of states of a biological system, defined as

where II is entropy, the probability of the system accepting a state from the region x, is the number of states of the system. E. s. can be determined relative to the distribution according to any structural or functional indicators. E. s. used to calculate the biological systems of an organization. An important characteristic of a living system is conditional entropy, which characterizes the uncertainty of the distribution of states of a biological system relative to a known distribution

where is the probability of the system accepting a state from the region x, provided that the reference system, relative to which the uncertainty is measured, accepts a state from the region y, is the number of states of the reference system. The parameters of reference systems for a biosystem can be a variety of factors and, first of all, a system of environmental variables (material, energy or organizational conditions). The measure of conditional entropy, like the measure of organization of a biosystem, can be used to assess the evolution of a living system over time. In this case, the reference distribution is the probability distribution of the system accepting its states at some previous moments in time. And if the number of states of the system remains unchanged, then the conditional entropy of the current distribution relative to the reference distribution is defined as

E. zh. pp., like the entropy of thermodynamic processes, is closely related to the energy state of the elements. In the case of a biosystem, this connection is multilateral and difficult to define. In general, changes in entropy accompany all life processes and serve as one of the characteristics in the analysis of biological patterns.

Yu. G. Antomopov, P. I. Belobrov.

Owners of patent RU 2533846:

The invention relates to biology and medicine, namely to the study of the influence of the environment and internal environment of the body on human or animal health. The method concerns the study of entropy in the body. To do this, determine the relative weight of the heart in relation to body weight in% (X), the number of heartbeats (A) and the oxygen content in the alveolar air of the lungs in% (Co 2). The calculation is carried out according to the formula: α = (0.25/T) Co 2, where α is entropy in%, T is the time of complete turnover of an erythrocyte with the circulating blood flow in sec, with T = [(0.44 75) /(X A)] 21.5. The method makes it possible to measure the main characteristic of an organism that unites living systems, which can be used to determine biological age, health status, and to study the effect of various means of preventing health problems and prolonging life. 1 table

The invention relates to biology and medicine, namely to methods for studying the influence of the environment and internal environment of the body on the health of humans and animals, and can be used to determine their biological age, the rate of aging, predicting the longevity of individuals in various conditions of the body and managing these vital signs .

It is known that living systems are open thermodynamic systems and are characterized by a complex ordered structure. Their levels of organization are much higher than in inanimate nature. To maintain and increase their high orderliness, living systems, to the extent of their inherent openness (including at the organismal level), continuously exchange energy, matter and information with the external environment and at the same time perform work to reduce entropy (energy dissipation into the environment), which inevitably increases due to losses due to heat transfer, Brownian motion and aging of molecules, etc. [Nikolis G., Prigozhy I. Cognition of the complex. M., 1990. - P.293]. The process of this exchange is called metabolism. It is known that metabolism with a minimum level of entropy is preferable, since it is this that ensures the operation of the system with maximum savings in losses and stability in the external environment [Prigozhy I. From existing to emerging. - M., 1985. - 113 p.; Prigozhy I. Introduction to the thermodynamics of irreversible processes. Per. from English M., 1960; Frank G.M., Kuzin A.M. About the essence of life. - M., 1964. - 350 p.]. On this basis, we put forward the hypothesis that the higher the level of metabolism in a living system, that is, the more intensively it exchanges energy, matter and information with the external environment, the more work this system is forced to do to maintain homeostasis in order to maintain a minimum level of entropy , incur more significant losses in this regard, become more open to the environment, and therefore vulnerable to its adverse effects. Following this hypothesis, the level of openness of a living system can be considered as an indicator of the quality of its physiological state, which has an inverse relationship with the characteristics of this quality - health, performance, life expectancy. It should be noted that other authors [Frolov V.A., Moiseeva T.Yu. A living organism as an information-thermodynamic system. - Bulletin of RUDN University, 1999, No. 1. - P.6-14] also consider the openness of a living system in connection with its lifespan at the stage of evolution to a closed thermodynamic system. Thus, metabolism, entropy, openness of a living system to the environment air environment can not only characterize the quality of the life support processes occurring in this system, but also be its root cause. The very concept of the openness of a living system to the environment can be given the following definition: the openness of a living system is its inherent development of the universal property of expediently life-supporting interaction with the environment.

In connection with the foregoing, we have set the task of developing a method for determining entropy in a human or animal body in order to be able to control life support processes.

Entropy in a human or animal body can be characterized by the kinetics of O 2 at the stages of its movement from the atmosphere into the body, which depends on the content of O 2 in the inhaled air and in the air contained in the alveoli of the lungs (alveolar), the time of complete saturation of the erythrocyte with oxygen in the lungs, the time , provided to the erythrocyte for the return of O 2 received in the lungs to the cells of the body, and the strength of the bond of erythrocyte hemoglobin with O 2.

It is known that the content of O 2 in the inhaled air depends on its content in the breathing zone. The natural content of O 2 in the air of open spaces is higher than in enclosed spaces and is equal to an average of 20.9%. The content of O 2 in the alveolar air is one of the individual homeostatic constants and (with other equal conditions: age, resistance to lack of oxygen, etc.) is in interaction with indicators of working capacity and general health of the body [Sirotinin N.N., 1971; Evgenieva L.Ya., 1974; Karpman V.L., Lyubina B.G., 1982; Meerson F.Z., 1981, etc.].

It is known that the duration of residence of erythrocytes in the pulmonary capillaries depends on the speed of pulmonary blood flow and is 0.25-0.75 s. This time is sufficient for oxygenation of the blood, since normally the erythrocyte is completely saturated with O 2 in 0.25 s [Zayko N.N., Byts Yu.V., Ataman A.V. and others. Pathological physiology (Textbook for students of medical universities). - To "Logos", 1996]. Thus, the time of complete saturation of an erythrocyte with oxygen in the lungs, equal to 0.25 s, characterizes the period or phase of effective (direct or open) contact of the erythrocyte with O 2 of the alveolar air. It is known that the time the erythrocyte releases the oxygen received in the lungs to the cells of the body before the next passage of the erythrocyte through the lungs for oxygen saturation characterizes the period or phase of ineffective (indirect or closed) contact of the erythrocyte of the circulating blood with O 2 of the alveolar air. The duration of this period (phase) significantly exceeds the duration of direct contact of a circulating blood erythrocyte with O 2 of the alveolar air and depends on the speed of blood circulation or the time (T) of a complete turnover of circulating blood in the body, which (all other things being equal) is affected by the heart rate (HR) ) [Babsky E.B., Zubkov A.A., Kositsky G.I., Khodorov B.I. Human physiology. - M.: Medicine, 1966. - P.117]. For example, in a normal adult, with a heart rate of 75 beats/min (muscle rest state), T is an average of 21.5 s. Taking into account the known age, sex and interspecies differences in the ratio of heart mass to body weight [Zhedenov V.N. Lungs and heart of animals and humans. 2nd ed. M., 1961. - 478 pp.] the value of T at different heart rates in animals and humans can be determined by the following mathematical expression:

T = [ (0.44 ⋅ 75) / (X ⋅ A) ] ⋅ 21.5 ; (1)

T is the time of complete turnover of an erythrocyte with the current of circulating blood in the body (the time of complete turnover of circulating blood in the animal and human being studied, during which the circulating blood makes a full turn in the sum of the pulmonary and systemic circulations), s;

0.44 - average relative mass of the human heart (in relation to the total body mass), which is characterized by a complete blood circulation time of 21.5 s at a heart rate of 75 beats/min, %;

75 - heart rate (HR), at which the time of complete circulation of circulating blood in a person occurs on average in 21.5 s, beats/min;

21.5 - time of complete circulation of circulating blood in a person at a heart rate of 75 beats/min, s;

X is the actual or (if it is impossible to measure) the average relative heart mass characteristic of humans and the animal species under study, %; (according to [Zhedenov V.N. Lungs and heart of animals and humans. 2nd ed. M., 1961. - 478 pp.] the weight of the heart from the total body weight is on average 1/215 in men and 1/250 in women );

A - actual heart rate, measured at the time of examination of the individual, beats/min.

It is known [Eckert R., Randall D., Augustine J. Animal physiology. T.2. M., 1992], that the strength of the connection of erythrocyte hemoglobin with O 2 or the resistance of oxyhemoglobin to dissociation, other things being equal, depends on the pH value of the blood, which, for example, decreases with increasing CO 2 tension in it and, thereby, reduces the strength of the connection of hemoglobin with O 2 (the affinity of hemoglobin for O 2), which promotes the release of O 2 into the blood plasma and from there into the surrounding tissues. It is also known that there is a reciprocal (mutually feedback) relationship between changes in the concentrations of CO 2 and O 2 in the body. Therefore, if the CO 2 content in any part of the body naturally affects the strength of the bond of hemoglobin with O 2, then the influence of this force on the further movement of O 2 into the body’s structures can be taken into account by the concentration of alveolar O 2.

However, taken separately, these physiological indicators that influence the interaction of atmospheric O 2 with the structures of the body (phases of direct and indirect contacts of the erythrocyte of the circulating blood with alveolar O 2 in the lungs and its concentration) cannot fully characterize its entropy, since in this In this case, their combined effect on metabolic processes is not taken into account.

The objective of the invention is to determine entropy in the human or animal body by the interaction of the phases of direct and indirect contacts of the circulating blood erythrocyte with alveolar O 2 in the lungs and its concentration.

This problem is solved in the claimed method for determining entropy in the human or animal body, which consists in taking into account the time of direct contact of the circulating blood erythrocyte with alveolar O 2 equal to 0.25 s, determining the time of the complete turnover of the erythrocyte with the circulating blood flow in the body with the actual number of heart beats per minute by the value of the ratio of the product of the average relative mass of the human heart, expressed as a percentage, equal to 0.44, expressed in heartbeats per minute, the number 75 to the product of the relative mass of the heart of the individual under study, expressed as a percentage, by the number of actual heartbeats he has at the time of the study per minute, multiplied by the time expressed in seconds for a complete turnover of an erythrocyte with a circulating blood stream, equal to the number 21.5 at 75 heartbeats per minute, measuring the percentage of O 2 in the alveolar air, and characterized in that the entropy in the human or animal body is determined by the value obtained from the product of the ratio of the time of direct contact of the erythrocyte of the circulating blood with alveolar O 2 to the time of complete turnover of the erythrocyte with the current of circulating blood in the body with the actual number of heart beats per minute per percentage of O 2 in the alveolar air.

where α - entropy in the human or animal body,%;

0.25 - the number corresponding to the time of complete saturation of the erythrocyte of the circulating blood in the body with oxygen, s;

T is the time of complete turnover of an erythrocyte with the current of circulating blood in the body, s;

The proposed method for determining entropy in a human or animal body is based on the fact that with an increase in heart rate (HR), the total (over a certain time) duration of direct contacts of a circulating blood erythrocyte with alveolar air oxygen increases, and indirect contacts decreases, which is accompanied by an increase metabolism in the body and an increase in the irreversible dissipation of free energy into the environment. So in a person (for example, in 10 minutes), the total duration of direct contacts of an erythrocyte with O 2 of the alveolar air at a heart rate of 75 beats/min (T = 21.5 s) is 7 s (that is, 600 s/21.5 s = 27 .9 revolutions of circulating blood; 27.9·0.25 s≈7 s), at a heart rate of 100 beats/min (T=16.1 s) - 9.3 s, and at a heart rate of 180 beats/min (T =8.96 s) - 16.7 s. At the same time, during the same time, the total duration of indirect contacts of the circulating blood erythrocyte with the oxygen of the alveolar air at a heart rate of 75 beats/min is 593 s [that is, 600 s/21.5 s = 27.9 revolutions of circulating blood; 27.9 (21.5 s-0.25 s) = 593 s], with a heart rate of 100 bpm - 591 s, and with a heart rate of 180 bpm - 583 s. Thus, in the proposed method, the openness of the body to the atmosphere, metabolism and entropy increase with increasing heart rate due to an increase in the phase of direct contact of the erythrocyte with the atmosphere (alveolar air-atmosphere) per unit time and a reduction in the opposite phase without gas exchange with the atmosphere.

The table shows examples of determining entropy (α) for 12 various kinds animals, which was compared with information available in the literature on the average life expectancy (D average) of the species of these animals. Based on the above data, the following power regression equation was obtained, characterizing the relationship between α and the statistical average life expectancy (D average):

where 5.1845 is an empirical coefficient;

R 2 - the value of the reliability of the approximation between D average and α.

In order to simplify the mathematical expression 3, we have developed formula 4 with the correlation coefficient r D average / D o average = 0.996; R<0,001:

where D o average is the expected average life expectancy;

5.262 - empirical coefficient;

R 2 - the value of the reliability of the approximation between D o average and α.

The obtained dependence of the lifespan of an animal species on the entropy in the body allows us to explain the paradoxical longevity of the rodent "Naked mole rat" (Heterocephalus glaber) exclusively by the habitation of this mammal in hardly ventilated underground conditions (tunnels with a diameter of 2-4 cm, a depth of up to 2 m, a length of up to 5 km ) with an extremely low content of O 2 in the inhaled air from 8 to 12% (10% on average) and a CO 2 concentration that is fatal for many other animals (10%). There is data on the content of high concentrations of carbon dioxide on the surface of the skin and mucous membranes of these rodents [Shinder A. An animal that does not feel pain // Weekly 2000. - 06.27-07.03.2008. No. 26 (420)], which are not observed in other animal species. The specified conditions of existence of the naked mole rat lead to extremely low concentrations of O 2 in the alveoli of the lungs (3.5%) and, according to the data presented in the table, reduce entropy by more than 8 times in comparison with other rodents of equal mass, which, apparently, leads to a significant (more than 15 times) increase in the life expectancy of individuals of this species. In the literature available to us, the indicated phenomenon of longevity of Heterocephalus glaber is explained from the standpoint of genetics by an acquired special property of its body, but this does not yet characterize the very root cause (external cause) of the formation and consolidation of this property in this species of rodent. From the results obtained it follows that (other things being equal) the lifespan of an organism is most likely a weighted average value determined by the duration of its states in the process of ontogenesis, characterized by the intensity of interaction of red blood cells in circulating blood with atmospheric oxygen.

However, based on an analysis of the literature (Gavrilov L.A., Gavrilova N.S. Biology of life expectancy M.: Nauka. 1991. - 280 pp.) it should be considered incorrect to transfer the laws of the animal world to the understanding of the problems of human longevity, which is determined primarily by socio-economic factors (level of medical care, labor safety and leisure efficiency, material security and spiritual comfort). Since the socio-economic living conditions of Homo sapiens have changed significantly during its evolution, the measurement of the life expectancy of a modern person using the pattern identified and reflected in formula 4 needs to be supplemented, taking into account the influence of these conditions on longevity.

The average life expectancy of a person in the Paleolithic (2.6 million years ago), when the conditions of his life differed little from animals, was 31 years [Buzhilova A.P. On the question of the semantics of collective burials in the Paleolithic era. In the book: Human etiology and related disciplines. Modern research methods. Ed. Butovskoy, M.: Institute of Etiology and Anthropology, 2004. S.21-35], which corresponds to the result obtained for great apes, for example, for a male gorilla:

α (for gorilla)=(0.25 s/21.5 s)·14.4%=0.167%;

D about average =5.262·0.167 -1 =31.5 years.

Taking into account the calculations of B.Ts. Urlanis [Urlanis B.Ts. Increasing life expectancy in the USSR // Social research: Sat. - M.: Nauka, 1965. - P. 151, 153; Urlanis B.Ts. Sketch about age // Week. - 1966. - No. 40], in which, using the example of the most advanced and prosperous countries, he statistically proves that the biological life expectancy (designated by the author as normal) should be 90 years, we We corrected formula 4, transforming it into formula 5, taking into account the additional 58 years that, in our opinion, men and women should live in normal socio-economic conditions of work and life. So, for example, if we take into account that in an adult, the concentration of O 2 in the alveolar air is normally 14.4% [Babsky E.B., Zubkov A.A., Kositsky G.I., Khodorov B.I. Human physiology. - M .: Medicine, 1966. - S. 117, 143], then (with an average heart rate of 72 beats / min, characteristic of men in a state of muscle rest and a heart mass of 1/215 of the total body weight), the period of complete circulation of circulating blood in body is equal to 21.4 s, α and Do average are:

α=(0.25 s/21.4 s)·14.4%=0.168%;

D about average =5.262·0.168 -1 =31.3 years.

As a result, the contribution of normal socio-economic conditions to life expectancy for men is: 90 years - 31.3 years = 58.7 years.

With an average heart rate of 78 bpm and a heart mass of 1/250 of the total body weight, typical for women in a state of muscular rest, the period of complete circulation of circulating blood in the body is 22.7 s, α and D about the average are:

α=(0.25 s/22.7 s)·14.4%=0.158%;

D about average =5.262·0.158 -1 =33.3 years.

As a result, the contribution of normal socio-economic conditions to life expectancy for women is: 90 years - 33.3 years = 56.7 years.

On the basis of these obtained data, as noted above, we have adopted the average value of the contribution of normal socio-economic conditions to life expectancy for men and women, equal to 58 years.

It is known that, unlike normal socio-economic conditions that provide a person with a specific (normal) life expectancy, real socio-economic conditions related to the region under study and the temporary period of residence form the average life expectancy. For example, if the average life expectancy in Russia in 2011 (according to Rosstat) was 64.3 years for men and 76.1 years for women, then the contribution of existing (in 2011) socio-economic conditions to the expected The life expectancy of a Russian was:

64.3 years - 31.3 years = 33.0 years (for men);

76.1 years - 33.3 years = 42.8 years (for women).

In the formulations of normal and average life expectancy, the semantic content of the expressions “normal and average” takes into account, first of all, the socio-economic conditions of life (normal - characterize conditions that are close to ideal, most conducive to the achievement of species, biological life expectancy, average - reflect actual conditions in the region during a given period of residence). In view of the foregoing, the expected duration of the forthcoming life of a person (D o) should be calculated using the following mathematical expression:

D o = 5.262 ⋅ α − 1 + A; (5)

where A is the expected number of years of living due to socio-economic conditions (under conditions close to ideal, denoted by normal, - 58 years; under other conditions - the number of years obtained by subtracting from known statistical data on average life expectancy in the region in this period of residence is 31.3 years for men and 33.3 years for women). The designation of the remaining symbols is given above.

An outstanding modern gerontologist academician D.F. Chebotarev points out that the specific life expectancy should serve as a real benchmark for increasing the average life expectancy. The difference between these values ​​represents a reserve that can be fully exploited by improving conditions and lifestyle. He considers the tactical task of gerontology to be the fight against premature aging and at least partial development of those reserves that a person certainly has and which are determined by the unused period between the modern average and species life expectancy, the preservation of practical health throughout the entire period of the so-called third age (from 60 to 90 years). He considers the prolongation of active longevity beyond the terms of the species longevity of a person as a strategic task [Chebotarev D.F. Physiological mechanisms of aging. L .: Nauka, 1982. - 228 p.]. The formula that defines the ultimate goals of gerontology “To add not only years to life, but also life to years” embodies both tactical and strategic tasks of this science, combines both medical and social problems of aging. Therefore, the development of tools that allow assessing the development of such body reserves that work to achieve active longevity with overcoming normal life expectancy should be considered as one of the important primary steps on the way to solving the complex problem of aging. In this regard, we believe that the method we have developed for determining the openness of human and animal organisms to the atmosphere is an important tool for successfully resolving this problem, since it makes it possible, for example, to identify and a priori evaluate the development of the longevity reserve of an organism at the stages of ontogenesis and, under various functional states, to identify similarities and difference in the formation of this reserve in humans and animals.

Let us give examples of the use of the proposed method in humans and some animals in various functional states (muscle rest, physical activity, disorders of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, the neonatal period and infancy of postnatal ontogenesis).

In a man, when performing work of moderate severity, the heart rate is 100 beats/min, the concentration of O 2 in the alveolar air, measured by the PGA-12 gas analyzer in the last portions of exhaled air, is maintained at the level of 14.4%. Therefore, the entropy in the human body when doing moderate work is:

α=(0.25 s/15.4 s) 14.4%=0.23%.

With this value of entropy, the normal and average life expectancy in 2011 can be:

D o normal =(5.262·0.23 -1)+58 years=80.9 years;

D about average = (5.262·0.23 -1) + 33.0 years = 55.9 years.

In a man with a violation of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, the heart rate in a state of muscle rest is 95 beats/min, while doing moderate work - 130 beats/min, the concentration of O 2 in the alveolar air, measured by the PGA-12 gas analyzer in the indicated states, is equal to 16.1%. Therefore, the entropy in the body will be:

- (in a state of muscle rest) α 1 =0.25 s/16.2 s·16.1%=0.25%;

- (in the state of performing moderate work) α 2 =0.25 s/11.9 s·16.1%=0.34%.

The normal and average life expectancy of a man with disorders of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems will be:

D o1 =(5.262·0.25 -1)+58 years=79.0 years (normal in a state of muscle rest);

D o2 \u003d (5.262 0.34 -1) + 58 years \u003d 73.5 years (normal in the state of performing work of moderate severity);

D o1 =(5.262·0.25 -1)+33.0 years=54.0 years (average in a state of muscle rest);

D o2 \u003d (5.262 0.34 -1) + 33.0 years \u003d 48.5 years (average in the state of performing work of moderate severity).

In a newborn boy, the heart rate is 150 bpm, the heart mass in the total body weight is 0.89%, the concentration of O 2 in the alveolar air is 17.8%. After 1/2 year and after a year, the heart rate and the content of O 2 in the alveolar air of the child decreased to 130 and 120 bpm, 17.3 and 17.2%, respectively. Therefore, the entropy in the body is:

In a newborn, α=0.25 s/5.31 s·17.8%=0.84%,

1/2 year after birth α=0.25 s/6.13 s·17.3%=0.70%,

One year after birth α=0.25 s/6.64 s·17.2%=0.65%.

The normal life expectancy, measured under the indicated functional states of the body, will be equal to:

For a newborn D o =(5.262·0.84 -1)+58 years=64.3 years

1/2 year after birth D o =(5.262·0.70 -1)+58 years=65.5 years

A year after birth D o =(5.262·0.65 -1)+58 years=66.1 years.

The average life expectancy will be:

In a newborn D o =(5.262·0.84 -1)+33.0 years=39.3 years

1/2 year after birth D o =(5.262·0.70 -1)+33.0 years=40.5 years

A year after birth D o =(5.262·0.65 -1)+33.0 years=41.1 years.

The identified differences in the value of entropy in the body under the indicated conditions are consistent with the risk of health problems to which newborns are more exposed, apparently due to insufficiently formed metabolic mechanisms. In particular, in terms of body weight, infants and young children drink more water, consume more food and inhale more air than adults [Dyachenko V.G., Rzyankina M.F., Solokhina L.V. Guide to social pediatrics: textbook / V.G. Dyachenko, M.F. Rzyankina, L.V. Solokhin / Ed. V.G. Dyachenko. - Khabarovsk: Dalnevostochny Publishing House. state honey. un-ta. - 2012. - 322 p.]. These results of testing the proposed method are consistent with the literature data that the biological age of the body is not a constant value, it changes under various conditions caused by age, physical activity, health, psycho-emotional stress and other factors [Pozdnyakova N.M., Proshchaev K O.I., Ilnitsky A.N., Pavlova T.V., Bashuk V.V. Modern views on the possibilities of assessing biological age in clinical practice // Fundamental Research. - 2011. - No. 2 - S.17-22].

In the house sparrow, the heart rate at muscular rest is 460 beats/min, and in flight - 950 beats/min (this species of animal has an average life expectancy of 1.2 years and a relative heart mass of 1.5%; [Zhedenov V.N. Lungs and heart of animals and humans. 2nd ed. M., 1961. - 478 pp.]), the concentration of O 2 in the alveolar air is 14.4%. Consequently, the entropy in the body of a house sparrow under these conditions will be equal to:

- (in a state of muscle rest) α 1 = (0.25 s/1.03 s) · 14.4% = 3.49%;

- (during flight) α 2 = (0.25 s/0.50 s) · 14.4% = 7.20%.

The average life expectancy of this sparrow will be:

- (in a state of muscle rest) D o =(5.262·3.49 -1)=1.5 years;

- (during flight) D o = (5.262·7.20 -1) = 0.73 years.

From examples of the use of the proposed method, it follows that with an increase in entropy in the human or animal body, the normal and average life expectancy of individuals decreases and vice versa. The obtained results of using the proposed method are consistent with the known results of physiological studies [Marshak M.E. Physiological significance of carbon dioxide. - M.: Medicine, 1969. - 145 p.; Agadzhanyan N.A., Elfimov A.I. Body functions under conditions of hypoxia and hypercapnia. M.: Medicine, 1986. - 272 p.; Agadzhanyan N.A., Katkov A.Yu. reserves of our body. M.: Znanie, 1990. - 240 p.], which established the effect of training the body to a lack of O 2 and excess CO 2 on improving health, increasing efficiency and increasing life expectancy. Since the studies of these authors have reliably established that training to a lack of O 2 and excess CO 2 reduces heart rate, frequency and depth of pulmonary respiration, and the content of O 2 in the alveolar air, the indicated beneficial effect of such training on the body can be explained by the achieved decrease in its openness to the atmosphere and irreversible dissipation of free energy into the environment.

Thus, during systematic training with volitional delays in pulmonary breathing and inhalation of hypoxic-hypercapnic air mixtures containing O 2 15-9% and CO 2 5-11%, the alveolar air contains O 2 8.5; 7.5%. As a result (at heart rate, for example, 50 beats/min) T = 32.25 s; α=0.0659%; 0.0581%. Then the normal life expectancy will be:

D o \u003d (5.262 0.0659 -1) + 58 years \u003d 138 years;

D o1 \u003d (5.262 0.0581 -1) + 58 years \u003d 149 years.

The average life expectancy for men will be:

D o =(5.262·0.0659 -1)+33.0 years=113 years;

D o1 =(5.262·0.0581 -1)+33.0 years=124 years.

Thus, in the claimed method for determining entropy in the human or animal body, the problem of the invention is solved: entropy in the human or animal body is determined by the interaction of the contact phases of the circulating blood erythrocyte with alveolar O 2 in the lungs and its concentration.

LITERATURE

1. Agadzhanyan N.A., Elfimov A.I. Body functions under conditions of hypoxia and hypercapnia. M.: Medicine, 1986. - 272 p.

2. Agadzhanyan N.A., Katkov A.Yu. reserves of our body. M.: Knowledge, 1990. - 240 p.

3. Babsky E.B., Zubkov A.A., Kositsky G.I., Khodorov B.I. Human physiology. - M.: Medicine, 1966. - S. 117, 143.

4. Buzhilova A.P. On the question of the semantics of collective burials in the Paleolithic era. In the book: Human etiology and related disciplines. Modern research methods. Ed. Butovskoy, M.: Institute of Etiology and Anthropology, 2004. - P.21-35.

5. Gavrilov L.A., Gavrilova N.S. Biology of lifespan. M.: Nauka, 1991. - 280 p.

6. Dyachenko V.G., Rzyankina M.F., Solokhina L.V. Guide to social pediatrics: textbook / V.G. Dyachenko, M.F. Rzyankina, L.V. Solokhin / Ed. V.G. Dyachenko. - Khabarovsk: Publishing house Dalnevo-stoch. state honey. University, 2012. - 322 p.

7. Evgenieva L.Ya. Breathing of an athlete. - Kyiv, Zdorov, 1974. - 101 p.

8. Zhedenov V.N. Lungs and heart of animals and humans. 2nd ed. M., 1961. - 478 p.

9. Zaiko N.N., Byts Yu.V., Ataman A.V. and others. Pathological physiology (Textbook for students of medical universities). - To "Logos", 1996.

10. Karpman V.L., Lyubina B.G. Dynamics of blood circulation in athletes. M.: Physical culture and sport, 1982. - 135 p.

11. Marshak M.E. Physiological significance of carbon dioxide. - M.: Medicine, 1969. - 145 p.

12. Meerson F.Z. Adaptation, stress and prevention. M., 1981.

13. Nicolis G., Prigozhy I. Knowledge of the complex. M., 1990. - P.293.

14. Pozdnyakova N.M., Proschaev K.I., Ilnitsky A.N., Pavlova T.V., Bashuk V.V. Modern views on the possibilities of assessing biological age in clinical practice // Fundamental Research, 2011. - No. 2 - P. 17-22.

15. Prigozhy I.R. Introduction to thermodynamics of irreversible processes. Per. from English M., 1960.

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18. Urlanis B.Ts. Increasing life expectancy in the USSR // Social research: Sat. - M.: Nauka, 1965. - P. 151, 153.

19. Urlanis B.Ts. Etude about age // Week, 1966. - No. 40.

20. Frank G.M., Kuzin A.M. About the essence of life. - M., 1964. - 350 s.

21. Chebotarev D.F. Physiological mechanisms of aging. L.: Nauka, 1982. - 228 p.

22. Shinder A. An animal that does not feel pain // Weekly 2000.-27.06-03.07.2008. No. 26 (420).

23. Eckert R., Randell D., Augustine J. Animal Physiology. T.2. M., 1992.

24. Stahl W.R. Organ weights in primates and other mammals, Science, 1965, 150, P.1039-1042.

25. Stahl W.R. Scaling of respiratory variables in mammals. J. Appl. Physiol., 1967, 22, P.453-460.

A method for determining entropy in a human or animal body, characterized in that the relative mass of the heart relative to body weight in % (X), the number of heartbeats (A) and the oxygen content in the alveolar air of the lungs in % (Co 2) are determined and the calculation is carried out according to the formula: α=(0.25/T)·Co 2, where α is entropy in%, T is the time of complete turnover of an erythrocyte with the circulating blood flow in sec, while T=[(0.44·75)/( X A)] 21.5.

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The invention relates to medical equipment. The device for measuring blood pressure in conditions of human motor activity contains a measuring pulse wave sensor under the pneumocuff at the passage of the brachial artery and a compensation pulse wave sensor on the diametrically opposite side of the arm. The outputs of the measuring and compensation sensors are connected to the corresponding amplifiers, which are connected to a subtractor, the output of which is connected to a band-pass filter, which is the output of the pressure meter. The device is additionally equipped with a second band-pass filter, first and second comparators, first and second sources of negative threshold voltage, first and second standby multivibrators, logic element 2I, and a device for generating an informing signal about the invalid displacement of the sensors. The application of the invention will make it possible to eliminate false positives and the occurrence of errors in blood pressure measurement in cases of unacceptable displacement of sensors from the installation point due to the prompt receipt of information about this. 4 ill.

The invention relates to medicine, namely to internal medicine. The patient is tested with the definition of clinical signs and the evaluation of each in points and the diagnostic indicator is calculated. At the same time, clinical signs are determined: arterial hypertension, taking into account its stage and duration; diabetes mellitus, its duration taking into account the patient’s age and complications; coronary heart disease and its duration, the presence of angina pectoris, myocardial infarction and its duration; patient's age; adherence to treatment; smoking. The absence of any of the listed signs is scored 0 points. After that, the sum of points is calculated, depending on the obtained value, a high, moderate or low probability of having suffered a “silent” stroke is predicted. The method makes it possible to reliably establish the presence of a “silent” stroke, which is achieved by identifying clinically significant signs and ranking them, taking into account the individual characteristics of their severity in the patient. 3 ill., 4 tab., 3 pr.

The invention relates to medicine, namely to preventive medicine, and is intended to identify young people at high risk of developing cardiovascular diseases for its timely correction. A survey is conducted to identify the leading risk factors for the development of cardiovascular diseases in accordance with the National Guidelines for Cardiovascular Prevention. The result of the survey is assessed in points: if the level of psychological stress is 3.01-4 for males and 2.83-4 for females, 0 points are assigned; if 2.01-3 for males and 1.83-2.82 for females, 1 point is assigned; if 2 or less for males and 1.82 or less for females, 2 points are assigned; if the respondent does not smoke, 0 points are assigned; if the respondent smokes less than 1 cigarette per day, 1 point is assigned; if the respondent smokes 1 or more cigarettes per day, 2 points are assigned; when consuming 13.7 grams or less of ethanol per day, 0 points are assigned, when consuming from 13.8 grams to 27.4 grams - 1 point, when consuming 27.5 grams or more - 2 points; if blood pressure is less than 129/84 mmHg, 0 points are assigned, if in the range of 130-139/85-89 mmHg. - 1 point if 140/90 mm Hg. and more - 2 points; if the body mass index is 24.9 kg/m2 or less, 0 points are assigned, if in the range of 25-29.9 kg/m2 - 1 point, if 30 kg/m2 or more - 2 points; for physical activity accompanied by energy burning of 3 MET/min or more for the last six months or more, 0 points are assigned, for physical activity accompanied by energy burning of 3 MET/min for less than the last six months - 1 point, for physical activity accompanied by burning energy less than 3 MET/min, assigned 2 points; when consuming 500 g or more of vegetables and fruits per day, 0 points are assigned, when consuming less than 500 g - 1 point, if there are no vegetables and fruits in the daily diet - 2 points; if the heart rate at rest is from 50 to 69 per minute, 0 points are assigned, from 70 to 79 per minute - 1 point, 80 per minute or more - 2 points; with a negative history of cardiovascular diseases in the case of manifestation of coronary artery disease or CVD in first-degree relatives in men under 55 years of age and in women under 65 years of age, 0 points are assigned, with a positive history of cardiovascular diseases - 1 point. The points are summed up, and if the sum is 8 points or more, the respondent is classified as a high-risk group for developing cardiovascular diseases and preventive measures are recommended. The method makes it possible to determine the risk of cardiovascular diseases in young people by assessing risk factors. 1 tab., 1 pr.

The method relates to the field of medicine, namely to clinical diagnostics, and is intended to identify healthy individuals with non-infectious chronic diseases or predisposition to them using an integral assessment of risk factors, suboptimal health status and endothelial dysfunction. The patient answers the questionnaire “Assessment of suboptimal health status. SHS-25", indicates his smoking history and the number of cigarettes smoked per day. Additionally, the patient's weight, height, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, blood glucose, total blood cholesterol are measured, and indices of vascular wall stiffness and pulse wave reflection are measured using a cuff test. Smoker indexes, body weights, endothelial function indices are calculated. Computer data processing is carried out in accordance with the equations. Based on the highest value obtained from the calculations, the subject will be assigned to one of five groups: optimal health status, suboptimal health status of low risk of developing pathological conditions, suboptimal health status of high risk of developing pathological conditions, cardiovascular phenotype of suboptimal health status of low risk of developing cardiovascular pathology, cardiovascular phenotype of suboptimal health status with a high risk of developing cardiovascular pathology. The method allows you to assess the state of health that has health deviations at the preclinical stage by identifying and assessing risk factors and determining suboptimal health status. 1 ave.

The invention relates to the field of medicine and can be used by dentists in various fields. Before starting dental procedures, tests are used to identify the degree of psycho-emotional stress and psychophysiological state of the patient, and also determine the pulse level before the first test (P1), between two tests (P2) and after the second test (P3). In the presence of a mild degree of psycho-emotional stress, a stable psychophysiological state in combination with the difference between P3 and P2 of no more than 15 beats/min compared to the difference between P2 and P1, the psycho-emotional state is assessed as stable and the patient’s readiness for dental intervention is stated. In the presence of an average degree of psycho-emotional stress, a borderline psychophysiological state in combination with the difference between P3 and P2 no more than 15 beats/min compared to the optimal state with the difference between P2 and P1, the psycho-emotional state is assessed as labile and the need for relaxation effects on the patient is stated before dental intervention. In the presence of a severe degree of psycho-emotional stress, an unstable psychophysiological state in combination with the difference between P3 and P2 of more than 15 beats/min compared to the difference between P2 and P1, the psycho-emotional state is assessed as unfavorable for dental intervention, requiring its delay. The method allows you to perform a rapid assessment of the patient's psycho-emotional state before dental intervention. 3 ave.

The group of inventions relates to medicine. The blood pressure measurement system using the indirect method contains a device for applying an external contact force to the artery being measured, an arterial expression sensor, and a measurement and recording device for determining the systolic and diastolic periods of the arterial cycle based on the values ​​recorded by the sensor. The measuring and recording device measures diastolic pressure during the diastolic period before the artery is completely occluded, and measures systolic pressure during the systolic period when the artery is occluded. The sensor records significant symptoms before, during and after receiving an external force. When measuring blood pressure by obliteration, the arterial cycle is obtained by distinguishing the systolic and diastolic periods without affecting the blood flow and arterial wall by external forces. Apply an external force to the artery and record the arterial expression from each period. The external force is increased until it equalizes the blood pressure in the period to be measured. The specified blood pressure is measured in a given arterial cycle when the arterial pronounced sign disappears in any of the systolic or diastolic periods. When measuring diastolic blood pressure by release, an external force is applied to the artery until it is occluded. The external force is weakened until it equalizes the blood pressure in the diastolic period. Diastolic pressure is measured when an arterial expressed sign is recorded at the time when an arterial expressed sign appears from the diastolic period of the arterial cycle. The use of a group of inventions will improve the accuracy of measuring blood pressure indirectly. 3 n. and 29 z.p. f-ly, 13 ill.

The invention relates to medical equipment. A device for recording arterial blood pulsation contains a pulse generator, a light source, a photodetector, a current/voltage converter, an alternating voltage amplifier, a synchronous demodulator, and a bandpass filter. Additionally, an accelerometer, an analog-to-digital converter, a microcontroller, an adaptive filter, and a subtractor are introduced into the device. The output of the band pass filter is connected to the first input of the analog-to-digital converter, the output of the accelerometer is connected to the second input of the analog-to-digital converter, the output of the analog-to-digital converter is connected to the input of the microcontroller, the first output of the microcontroller is connected to the first input of the subtractor, the second output of the microcontroller is connected to the first input adaptive filter, the output of the subtraction block is connected to the second input of the adaptive filter, the output of the adaptive filter is connected to the second input of the subtraction block. The use of the invention will make it possible to increase the noise immunity of recording a human arterial pulsation signal in the presence of motion artifacts caused by random movements of the subject. 1 ill.

The invention relates to biology and medicine, namely to the study of the influence of the environment and internal environment of the body on human or animal health. The method concerns the study of entropy in the body. To do this, determine the relative mass of the heart in relation to body weight, the number of heart contractions and the oxygen content in the alveolar air of the lungs. The calculation is carried out according to the formula: α·Co2, where α is the entropy in, T is the time of complete turnover of the erythrocyte with the circulating blood flow per second, while T 21.5. The method makes it possible to measure the main characteristic of an organism that unites living systems, which can be used to determine biological age, health status, and to study the effect of various means of preventing health problems and prolonging life. 1 table

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RF

Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution higher professional education

"SAINT PETERSBURG STATE UNIVERSITY OF AEROSPACE INSTRUMENT MAKING"

DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMIC SECURITY

Entropy in living systems

in the discipline: Concepts of modern natural science

Completed by: student

Supervisor:

Doctor of Economics Sciences,

Professor A.V. Samoilov

St. Petersburg 2014

Electronic circuit of life

Entropy of life

Diagnostic technologies based on the achievements of quantum biophysics

Conclusion

Bibliography

Maintaining

Methods for studying the functional state of a person by recording the electro-optical parameters of the skin can be divided into two conditional groups according to the nature of the involved biophysical processes. The first group includes "slow" methods, in which the measurement time is more than 1 s.

In this case, under the influence of applied potentials, ion-depolarization currents are stimulated in the tissues, and the ion component makes the main contribution to the measured signal. "Fast" methods, in which the measurement time is less than 100 ms, are based on the registration of physical processes stimulated by the electronic component of tissue conductivity.

Such processes are described mainly by quantum mechanical models, so they can be designated as methods of quantum biophysics.

The latter include methods for recording stimulated and intrinsic luminescence, as well as the method of stimulated electron emission with amplification in a gas discharge (gas-discharge visualization method). Let us consider in more detail the biophysical and entropy mechanisms for implementing the methods of quantum biophysics.

Electronic circuit of life

"I am deeply convinced that we will never be able to understand the essence of life if we limit ourselves to the molecular level ... The amazing subtlety of biological reactions is due to the mobility of electrons and can only be explained from the standpoint of quantum mechanics." A. Szent-Gyorgyi, 1971

The electronic circuit of life is the cycle and transformation of energy in biological systems. Photons of sunlight are absorbed by chlorophyll molecules concentrated in the chloroplast membranes of green plant organelles.

By absorbing light, the electrons of chlorophylls acquire additional energy and pass from the ground state to the excited state. Thanks to the ordered organization of the protein-chlorophyll complex, which is called the photosystem (PS), the excited electron does not waste energy on thermal transformations of molecules, but acquires the ability to overcome electrostatic repulsion, although the substance located next to it has a higher electronic potential than chlorophyll. As a result, the excited electron goes to this substance.

After losing its electron, chlorophyll has a free electron vacancy. And it takes an electron from surrounding molecules, and the donor can be substances whose electrons have lower energy than the electrons of chlorophyll. This substance is water.

Taking electrons from water, the photosystem oxidizes it to molecular oxygen. Thus, the Earth's atmosphere is continuously enriched with oxygen.

When a mobile electron is transferred along a chain of structurally interconnected macromolecules, it spends its energy on anabolic and catabolic processes in plants, and under appropriate conditions, in animals. According to modern concepts, intermolecular transfer of an excited electron occurs through the mechanism of the tunnel effect in a strong electric field.

Chlorophylls serve as an intermediate step in the potential well between the electron donor and acceptor. They accept electrons from a donor with a low energy level and, using the energy of the sun, excite them so much that they can transfer to a substance with a higher electron potential than the donor.

This is the only, albeit multi-stage, light reaction in the process of photosynthesis. Further autotrophic biosynthetic reactions do not require light. They occur in green plants due to the energy contained in electrons belonging to NADPH and ATP. Due to the colossal influx of electrons from carbon dioxide, water, nitrates, sulfates and other relatively simple substances, high-molecular compounds are created: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, nucleic acids.

These substances serve as the main nutrients for heterotrophs. During catabolic processes, also provided by electron transport systems, electrons are released in approximately the same quantity as they were captured by organic substances during photosynthesis.

The electrons released during catabolism are transferred to molecular oxygen by the mitochondrial respiratory chain. Here, oxidation is associated with phosphorylation - the synthesis of ATP through the addition of a phosphoric acid residue to ADP (that is, phosphorylation of ADP). This ensures the energy supply for all life processes of animals and humans.

Being in a cell, biomolecules “live”, exchanging energy and charges, and therefore information, thanks to a developed system of delocalized p-electrons. Delocalization means that a single cloud of p-electrons is distributed in a certain way throughout the entire structure of the molecular complex. This allows them to migrate not only within their molecule, but also to move from molecule to molecule if they are structurally combined into ensembles. The phenomenon of intermolecular transfer was discovered by J. Weiss in 1942, and the quantum mechanical model of this process was developed in 1952-1964 by R.S. Mulliken.

At the same time, the most important mission of p-electrons in biological processes is associated not only with their delocalization, but also with the peculiarities of their energy status: the difference between the energies of the ground and excited states for them is significantly less than that of p-electrons and is approximately equal to the photon energy hn.

Thanks to this, it is p-electrons that are able to accumulate and convert solar energy, due to which the entire energy supply of biological systems is connected with them. Therefore, p-electrons are usually called “electrons of life.”

By comparing the scales of reduction potentials of the components of the photosynthesis and respiratory chain systems, it is easy to verify that solar energy converted by p-electrons during photosynthesis is spent primarily on cellular respiration (ATP synthesis). Thus, due to the absorption of two photons in the chloroplast, p-electrons are transferred from P680 to ferredoxin, increasing their energy by approximately 241 kJ/mol. A small part of it is consumed during the transfer of p-electrons from ferredoxin to NADP. As a result, substances are synthesized, which then become food for heterotrophs and are converted into substrates for cellular respiration. At the beginning of the respiratory chain, the free energy reserve of p-electrons is 220 kJ/mol. This means that before this, the energy of p-electrons decreased by only 20 kJ/mol. Consequently, more than 90% of the solar energy stored by p-electrons in green plants is carried by them to the respiratory chain of mitochondria in animals and humans.

The final product of redox reactions in the respiratory chain of mitochondria is water. It has the least free energy of all biologically important molecules. It is said that with water the body emits electrons that are deprived of energy in the processes of vital activity. In fact, the supply of energy in water is by no means zero, but all the energy is contained in y-bonds and cannot be used for chemical transformations in the body at body temperature and other physicochemical parameters of the body of animals and humans. In this sense, the chemical activity of water is taken as a reference point (zero level) on the scale of chemical activity.

Of all biologically important substances, water has the highest ionization potential - 12.56 eV. All molecules of the biosphere have ionization potentials below this value, the range of values ​​is approximately within 1 eV (from 11.3 to 12.56 eV).

If we take the ionization potential of water as a reference point for the reactivity of the biosphere, then we can build a scale of biopotentials. The biopotential of each organic substance has a very specific meaning - it corresponds to the energy that is released during the oxidation of a given compound to water.

The BP dimension is the dimension of the free energy of the corresponding substances (in kcal). And although 1 eV = 1.6 10 -19 J, when moving from the ionization potential scale to the biopotential scale, one must take into account the Faraday number and the difference in standard reduction potentials between the redox pair of a given substance and the O 2 /H 2 O redox pair.

Thanks to photon absorption, electrons reach their highest biopotential in plant photosystems. From this high energy level, they discretely (step by step) descend to the lowest energy level in the biosphere - the water level. The energy given off by electrons at each step of this ladder is converted into the energy of chemical bonds and thus drives the life of animals and plants. The electrons of water are bound by plants, and cellular respiration again generates water. This process forms an electron cycle in the biosphere, the source of which is the sun.

Another class of processes that are a source and reservoir of free energy in the body are oxidative processes occurring in the body with the participation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS are highly reactive chemical particles, which include oxygen-containing free radicals (O 2 3 / 4 ·, HO 2 ·, HO·, NO·, ROO), as well as molecules that can easily produce free radicals (singlet oxygen , O 3 , ONOOH, HOCl, H 2 O 2 , ROOH, ROOR). Most publications devoted to ROS discuss issues related to their pathogenic effects, since for a long time it was believed that ROS appear in the body when normal metabolism is disrupted, and during chain reactions initiated by free radicals, the molecular components of the cell are nonspecifically damaged.

However, it is now clear that superoxide-generating enzymes are present in virtually all cells and that many normal physiological cellular responses correlate with increased ROS production. ROS are also generated during non-enzymatic reactions that constantly occur in the body. According to minimal estimates, at rest during human and animal respiration, up to 10-15% of oxygen is used for the production of ROS, and with increased activity this proportion increases significantly. At the same time, the steady-state level of ROS in organs and tissues is normally very low due to the ubiquity of powerful enzymatic and non-enzymatic systems that eliminate them. The question of why the body produces ROS so intensively in order to immediately get rid of them has not yet been discussed in the literature.

It has been established that adequate cell responses to hormones, neurotransmitters, cytokines, and physical factors (light, temperature, mechanical stress) require a certain content of ROS in the environment. ROS themselves can cause in cells the same reactions that develop under the influence of bioregulatory molecules - from activation or reversible inhibition of enzymatic systems to regulation of genome activity. The biological activity of the so-called air ions, which have a pronounced therapeutic effect on a wide range of infectious and non-infectious diseases, is due to the fact that they are free radicals (O 2 3/4 ·). The use of other ROS - ozone and hydrogen peroxide - for therapeutic purposes is also expanding.

Important results were obtained in recent years by Moscow State University professor V.L. Voeikov. Based on a large amount of experimental data on the study of ultra-weak luminescence of whole undiluted human blood, it was found that reactions involving ROS continuously occur in the blood, during which electronically excited states (EES) are generated.

Similar processes can be initiated in model aqueous systems containing amino acids and components that promote the slow oxidation of amino acids under conditions close to physiological. The energy of electronic excitation can migrate radiatively and nonradiatively in aqueous model systems and in the blood, and be used as activation energy to intensify the processes that generate EMU, in particular, due to the induction of degenerate branching of chains.

Processes involving ROS occurring in the blood and in water systems show signs of self-organization, expressed in their oscillatory nature, resistance to the action of intense external factors while maintaining high sensitivity to the action of factors of low and ultra-low intensity. This position lays the foundation for explaining many of the effects used in modern low-intensity therapy.

Received by V.L. Voeikov's results demonstrate another mechanism for the generation and utilization of EVS in the body, this time in liquid media. The development of the concepts presented in this chapter will make it possible to substantiate the biophysical mechanisms of energy generation and transport in biological systems.

Entropy of life

In thermodynamic terms, open (biological) systems in the process of functioning pass through a number of nonequilibrium states, which, in turn, is accompanied by changes in thermodynamic variables.

Maintaining nonequilibrium states in open systems is possible only by creating flows of matter and energy in them, which indicates the need to consider the parameters of such systems as a function of time.

A change in the entropy of an open system can occur due to exchange with the external environment (d e S) and due to an increase in entropy in the system itself due to internal irreversible processes (d i S > 0). E. Schrödinger introduced the concept that the total change in entropy of an open system consists of two parts:

dS = d e S + d i S.

Differentiating this expression, we get:

dS/dt = d e S/dt + d i S/dt.

The resulting expression means that the rate of change in the entropy of the system dS/dt is equal to the rate of entropy exchange between the system and the environment plus the rate of entropy generation within the system.

The term d e S/dt , which takes into account the processes of energy exchange with the environment, can be both positive and negative, so that when d i S > 0, the total entropy of the system can either increase or decrease.

Negative value d e S/dt< 0 соответствует тому, что отток положительной энтропии от системы во внешнюю среду превышает приток положительной энтропии извне, так что в результате общая величина баланса обмена энтропией между системой и средой является отрицательной. Очевидно, что скорость изменения общей энтропии системы может быть отрицательной при условии:

dS/dt< 0 if d e S/dt < 0 and |d e S/dt| >d i S/dt.

Thus, the entropy of an open system decreases due to the fact that in other parts of the external environment there are conjugated processes with the formation of positive entropy.

For terrestrial organisms, general energy exchange can be simplified as the formation of complex carbohydrate molecules from CO 2 and H 2 O in photosynthesis, followed by degradation of photosynthesis products in respiration processes. It is this energy exchange that ensures the existence and development of individual organisms - links in the energy cycle. So is life on Earth in general.

From this point of view, the decrease in the entropy of living systems in the process of their life activity is ultimately due to the absorption of light quanta by photosynthetic organisms, which, however, is more than compensated by the formation of positive entropy in the depths of the Sun. This principle also applies to individual organisms, for which the supply of nutrients from the outside, carrying an influx of “negative” entropy, is always associated with the production of positive entropy during their formation in other parts of the external environment, so that the total change in entropy in the system organism + external environment is always positive .

Under constant external conditions in a partially equilibrium open system in a stationary state close to thermodynamic equilibrium, the rate of entropy growth due to internal irreversible processes reaches a non-zero constant minimum positive value.

d i S/dt => A min > 0

This principle of minimum entropy gain, or Prigogine's theorem, is a quantitative criterion for determining the general direction of spontaneous changes in an open system near equilibrium.

This condition can be represented differently:

d/dt (d i S/dt)< 0

This inequality indicates the stability of the stationary state. Indeed, if a system is in a stationary state, then it cannot spontaneously exit it due to internal irreversible changes. When deviating from a stationary state, internal processes must occur in the system, returning it to a stationary state, which corresponds to the Le Chatelier principle - the stability of equilibrium states. In other words, any deviation from the steady state will cause an increase in the rate of entropy production.

In general, the decrease in the entropy of living systems occurs due to the free energy released during the decay of nutrients absorbed from the outside or due to the energy of the sun. At the same time, this leads to an increase in their free energy.

Thus, the flow of negative entropy is necessary to compensate for internal destructive processes and loss of free energy due to spontaneous metabolic reactions. In essence, we are talking about the circulation and transformation of free energy, due to which the functioning of living systems is maintained.

Diagnostic technologies based on the achievements of quantum biophysics

Based on the concepts discussed above, a number of approaches have been developed that make it possible to study the intravital activity of biological systems.

First of all, these are spectral methods, among which it is necessary to note the method of simultaneous measurement of the intrinsic fluorescence of NADH and oxidized flavoproteins (FP), developed by a team of authors led by V.O. Samoilova.

This technique is based on the use of an original optical scheme developed by E.M. Brumberg, which makes it possible to simultaneously measure the NADH fluorescence at a wavelength l = 460 nm (blue light) and the fluorescence of the FP at a wavelength l = 520–530 nm (yellow-green light) upon excitation with ultraviolet light (l = 365 nm).

In this donor-acceptor pair, the p-electron donor fluoresces in the reduced form (NADH), and the acceptor fluoresces in the oxidized form (OP). Naturally, reduced forms predominate at rest, while oxidized forms predominate when oxidative processes are intensified.

The technique was brought to the practical level of convenient endoscopic instruments, which made it possible to develop an early diagnosis of malignant diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, lymph nodes during surgical operations, and skin. It turned out to be fundamentally important to assess the degree of tissue viability in the course of surgical operations for economical resection.

Intravital flowmetry provides, in addition to static indicators, dynamic characteristics of biological systems, as it allows for functional tests and investigation of the dose-effect relationship. This provides reliable functional diagnostics in the clinic and serves as a tool for experimental study of the intimate mechanisms of disease pathogenesis.

The method of gas discharge visualization (GDV) can also be attributed to the direction of quantum biophysics. Stimulation of the emission of electrons and photons from the surface of the skin occurs due to short (10 μs) pulses of an electromagnetic field (EMF). As measurements using a pulse oscilloscope with memory have shown, during the action of an EMF pulse, a series of current (and glow) pulses with a duration of approximately 10 ns each develops.

The development of the pulse is due to the ionization of molecules of the gaseous medium due to emitted electrons and photons, the breakdown of the pulse is associated with the processes of charging the dielectric surface and the appearance of an EMF gradient directed opposite to the original field. When a series of stimulating EMF pulses are applied with a repetition rate of 1000 Hz, emission processes develop during the duration of each pulse.

Television observation of the temporal dynamics of the glow of an area of ​​the skin with a diameter of several millimeters and frame-by-frame comparison of the glow patterns in each voltage pulse indicates the emergence of emission centers in almost the same points of the skin. biological entropy protein

In such a short time - 10 ns - ion-depolization processes in the tissue do not have time to develop, so the current can be caused by the transport of electrons through the structural complexes of the skin or other biological tissue under study, included in the circuit of the pulsed electric current. Biological tissues are usually divided into conductors (primarily biological conducting fluids) and dielectrics.

To explain the effects of stimulated electron emission, it is necessary to consider the mechanisms of electron transport through non-conducting structures. Ideas have been repeatedly expressed to apply the semiconductor conductivity model to biological tissues. The semiconductor model of electron migration over large intermolecular distances along the conduction band in a crystal lattice is well known and is actively used in physics and technology.

According to modern concepts, the semiconductor concept has not been confirmed for biological systems. Currently, the concept of tunneling electron transport between individual protein carrier molecules separated from each other by energy barriers is attracting the most attention in this field.

The processes of tunneling electron transport have been well studied experimentally and modeled using the example of electron transfer along a protein chain. The tunnel mechanism provides the elementary act of electron transfer between donor-acceptor groups in a protein located at a distance of about 0.5 - 1.0 nm from each other. However, there are many examples where an electron is transferred in a protein over much longer distances.

It is important that in this case the transfer occurs not only within one protein molecule, but can involve the interaction of different protein molecules. So, in the electron transfer reaction between cytochromes c and cytochrome oxidase and cytochrome b5, it turned out that the distance between the gems of interacting proteins is more than 2.5 nm. The characteristic time of electron transfer is 10 -11 - 10 -6 s, which corresponds to the development time of a single emission event in the GDV method.

The conductivity of proteins can be of an impurity nature. According to experimental data, the mobility value u [m 2 /(V cm)] in an alternating electric field was ~ 1*10 -4 for cytochrome and ~ 2*10 -4 for hemoglobin. In general, it turned out that for most proteins, conduction occurs as a result of electron hopping between localized donor and acceptor states separated by distances of tens of nanometers. The limiting stage in the transfer process is not the movement of the charge through the current states, but the relaxation processes in the donor and acceptor.

In recent years, it has been possible to calculate the actual configurations of this kind of “electron paths” in specific proteins. In these models, the protein medium between a donor and an acceptor is divided into separate blocks linked to each other by covalent and hydrogen bonds, as well as non-valent interactions at a distance of the order of van der Waals radii. The electron path, therefore, is represented by a combination of those atomic electron orbitals that make the greatest contribution to the value of the matrix element of the interaction of the wave functions of the components.

At the same time, it is generally accepted that specific paths of electron transfer are not strictly fixed. They depend on the confirmation state of the protein globule and can change accordingly under different conditions.

Marcus's work developed an approach that considers not just one optimal transfer trajectory in a protein, but a set of them. When calculating the transfer constant, the orbitals of a number of electronically interacting atoms of amino acid residues of the protein between the donor and acceptor groups, which make the greatest contribution to the superexchange interaction, were taken into account. It turned out that for individual proteins, more accurate linear relationships are obtained than when taking into account a single trajectory.

The transformation of electronic energy in biostructures is associated not only with the transfer of electrons, but also with the migration of electronic excitation energy, which is not accompanied by the removal of an electron from the donor molecule. According to modern concepts, the most important for biological systems are inductive-resonance, exchange-resonance and excitonic mechanisms of electronic excitation transfer. These processes turn out to be important when considering the processes of energy transfer through molecular complexes, which, as a rule, are not accompanied by charge transfer.

Conclusion

The considered concepts show that the main reservoir of free energy in biological systems is the electronically excited states of complex molecular complexes. These states are continuously maintained due to the circulation of electrons in the biosphere, the source of which is solar energy, and the main “working substance” is water. Some of the states are spent to ensure the current energy resource of the body, some can be stored in the future, just as it happens in lasers after absorbing the pump pulse.

The flow of pulsed electric current in non-conducting biological tissues can be achieved through the intermolecular transfer of excited electrons via the tunnel effect mechanism with activated electron hopping in the contact region between macromolecules.

Thus, it can be assumed that the formation of specific structural protein complexes in the thickness of the epidermis and dermis of the skin ensures the formation of channels of increased electronic conductivity, experimentally measured on the surface of the epidermis as electropuncture points.

Hypothetically, one can assume the presence of such channels in the thickness of the connective tissue, which may be associated with “energy” meridians. In other words, the concept of “energy” transfer, characteristic of the ideas of Eastern medicine and jarring to the ears of a person with a European education, can be associated with the transport of electronically excited states through molecular protein complexes.

If it is necessary to perform physical or mental work in a given body system, electrons distributed in protein structures are transported to a given location and provide the process of oxidative phosphorylation, that is, energy supply for the functioning of the local system.

Thus, the body forms an electronic “energy depot” that supports current functioning and is the basis for performing work that requires the immediate implementation of enormous energy resources or occurs under conditions of extremely high loads, characteristic, for example, of professional sports.

Stimulated pulsed emission also develops mainly due to the transport of delocalized p-electrons, realized in electrically non-conducting tissue through the tunneling mechanism of electron transfer. This suggests that the GDV method makes it possible to indirectly judge the level of energy reserves at the molecular level of the functioning of structural protein complexes.

Bibliography

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