Seven Years' War Meanwhile, Russia was drawn into the so-called Seven Years' War, the instigator of which was Prussia. By strengthening the supreme power, mobilizing resources, creating a well-organized large army (for 100 years it has grown 25 times and

The war of two coalitions for hegemony in Europe, as well as for colonial possessions in North America and India. One of the coalitions included England and Prussia, the other - France, Austria and Russia . Between England and France there was a struggle for colonies in North America. Here clashes began in 1754, and in 1756 England declared war on France. In January 1756, the Anglo-Prussian alliance was concluded. In response, Prussia's main rival, Austria, made peace with its old enemy France. The Austrians hoped to regain Silesia, while the Prussians were going to conquer Saxony. Sweden joined the Austro-French defensive alliance, hoping to win Stettin and other territories lost during the Great Northern War from Prussia. At the end of the year, Russia joined the Anglo-French coalition, hoping to conquer East Prussia, in order to later transfer it to Poland in exchange for Courland and Semigallia. Prussia was supported by Hanover and several small North German states.

The Prussian king Frederick II the Great had a well-trained 150,000-strong army, at that time the best in Europe. In August 1756, with an army of 95 thousand people, he invaded Saxony and inflicted a series of defeats on the Austrian troops who came to the aid of the Saxon elector. On October 15, the 20,000-strong Saxon army capitulated at Pirna, and its soldiers joined the ranks of the Prussian troops. After that, the 50,000th Austrian army left Saxony.

In the spring of 1757, Frederick invaded Bohemia with an army of 121.5 thousand people. At this time, the Russian army had not yet begun the invasion of East Prussia, and France was going to act against Magdeburg and Hanover. On May 6, 64,000 Prussians defeated 61,000 Austrians near Prague. Both sides in this battle lost 31.5 thousand killed and wounded, and the Austrian army also lost 60 guns. As a result, 50 thousand Austrians were blocked in Prague by the 60 thousandth army of Frederick. To unblock the capital of the Czech Republic, the Austrians gathered at Kolin the 54,000-strong army of General Down with 60 guns. She moved to Prague. Friedrich fielded 33,000 men with 28 heavy guns against the Austrian troops.

On June 17, 1757, the Prussians began to bypass the right flank of the Austrian position at Kolin from the north, but Down noticed this maneuver in time and deployed his forces with the front to the north. When the next day the Prussians attacked, inflicting main blow against the enemy's right flank, she was met with heavy fire. The Prussian infantry of General Gulsen managed to occupy the village of Krzegory, but the tactically important oak grove behind it remained in the hands of the Austrians. Down moved his reserve here. In the end, the main forces of the Prussian army, concentrated on the left flank, could not withstand the rapid fire of enemy artillery, which fired grapeshot, and fled. Here the Austrian troops of the left flamg went on the attack. Down's cavalry pursued the defeated enemy for several kilometers. The remnants of Frederick's army retreated to Nimburg.

Down's victory was the result of a one-and-a-half superiority of the Austrians in people and a twofold advantage in artillery. The Prussians lost 14,000 killed, wounded and captured, and almost all of their artillery, while the Austrians lost 8,000 men. Frederick was forced to lift the siege of Prague and retreat to the Prussian border.

The strategic position of Prussia seemed critical. Allied forces numbering up to 300 thousand people were deployed against Frederick's army. The Prussian king decided to first defeat the French army, reinforced by the troops of the principalities allied with Austria, and then invade Silesia again.

The 45,000-strong allied army occupied a position near Müheln. Frederick, who had only 24 thousand soldiers, lured the enemy out of the fortifications with a feigned retreat to the village of Rossbach. The French hoped to cut off the Prussians from crossings over the Saale River and defeat them.

On the morning of November 5, 1757, the allies marched in three columns around the left flank of the enemy. This maneuver was covered by an 8,000-strong detachment, which started a firefight with the Prussian avant-garde. Friedrich guessed the enemy's plan and at half past three in the afternoon ordered to withdraw from the camp and imitate a withdrawal to Merseburg. The allies tried to intercept the escape routes by sending their cavalry around Janus Hill. However, she was suddenly attacked and defeated by the Prussian cavalry under the command of General Seidlitz.

Meanwhile, under the cover of heavy fire from 18 artillery batteries, the Prussian infantry went on the offensive. Allied infantry was forced to line up in battle formation under enemy nuclei. Soon she was under the threat of a flank attack by Seidlitz's squadrons, trembled and ran. The French and their allies lost 7,000 killed, wounded and captured, and all their artillery - 67 guns and a convoy. The losses of the Prussians were insignificant - only 540 killed and wounded. Here, both the qualitative superiority of the Prussian cavalry and artillery, and the mistakes of the allied command, affected. The French commander-in-chief started a complex maneuver, as a result of which most of the army was in marching columns and was deprived of the opportunity to participate in the battle. Friedrich got the opportunity to beat the enemy in parts.

Meanwhile, the Prussian troops in Silesia were losing. The king rushed to their aid with 21,000 infantry, 11,000 cavalry, and 167 guns. The Austrians settled down near the village of Leiten on the banks of the Weistritsa River. They had 59 thousand infantry, 15 thousand cavalry and 300 guns. On the morning of December 5, 1757, the Prussian cavalry drove back the Austrian vanguard, depriving the enemy of the opportunity to observe Frederick's army. Therefore, the attack of the main forces of the Prussians was a complete surprise for the Austrian commander-in-chief, Duke Charles of Lorraine.

Frederick, as always, struck the main blow on his right flank, but by the actions of the avant-garde he drew the attention of the enemy to the opposite wing. When Karl realized the true intentions and began to rebuild his army, the Austrians' order of battle was broken. The Prussians took advantage of this for a flank attack. The Prussian cavalry routed the Austrian cavalry on the right flank and put them to flight. Then Seydlitz also attacked the Austrian infantry, which had previously been pushed back behind Leithen by the Prussian infantry. Only darkness saved the remnants of the Austrian army from complete annihilation. The Austrians lost 6.5 thousand people killed and wounded and 21.5 thousand prisoners, as well as all artillery and baggage. The losses of the Prussians did not exceed 6 thousand people. Silesia was again under Prussian control.

At this time active fighting started Russian troops. Back in the summer of 1757, the 65,000-strong Russian army under the command of Field Marshal Apraksin S.F. moved to Lithuania, intending to take possession of East Prussia. In August, Russian troops approached Koenigsberg.

On August 19, the 22,000-strong detachment of the Prussian General Lewald attacked the Russian troops near the village of Gross-Egersdorf, having no idea either about the true number of the enemy, who was almost three times superior to him, or about his location. Instead of the left flank, Levald found himself in front of the center of the Russian position. The regrouping of the Prussian forces during the battle only exacerbated the situation. The right flank of Lewald turned out to be overturned, which could not be compensated for by the success of the left-flank Prussian troops, who captured the enemy battery, but did not have the opportunity to develop success. The losses of the Prussians amounted to 5 thousand killed and wounded and 29 guns, the losses of the Russians reached 5.5 thousand people. The Russian troops did not pursue the retreating enemy, and the battle at Gross-Egersdorf had no decisive significance.

Unexpectedly, Apraksin ordered a retreat, citing a lack of supplies and separation of the army from their bases. The field marshal was accused of treason and put on trial. The only success was the capture of Memel by 9,000 Russian troops. This port was turned into the main base of the Russian fleet for the duration of the war.

Instead of Apraksin, General-in-Chief Villim Vilimovich Fermor was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian troops. An Englishman by birth, he was born in Moscow. He was a good administrator, but an indecisive man and a poor commander. Soldiers and officers, mistaking Fermor for a German, expressed dissatisfaction with his appointment to the post of commander in chief. It was unusual for Russian people to observe that in the presence of the commander-in-chief, instead of an Orthodox priest, there was a Protestant chaplain. Upon arrival at the troops, Fermor first of all gathered all the Germans from his headquarters - and there were quite a few of them then in the Russian army - and led them to a tent, where a prayer service was held with strange for Orthodox chants in an unfamiliar language.

The conference set before Fermor at the end of 1757 - the beginning of 1758 the task of mastering the whole of East Prussia and bringing its population to the oath of allegiance to Russia. This task was successfully solved by the Russian troops. In bitter frosts, bogged down in snowdrifts, formations under the command of P.A. Rumyantsev and P.S. Saltykov.

On January 22, 1758, the Russian army occupied Koenigsberg, and after that, the whole of East Prussia. In these operations, Fermor did not even show signs of military talent. Almost all operational and tactical plans were developed and carried out independently by Rumyantsev and Saltykov, and Fermor often interfered with them with his ill-conceived orders.

When the Russian troops entered Königsberg, the burgomaster of the city, members of the magistrate and other officials with swords and in uniforms solemnly came out to meet them. To the thunder of the timpani and the beat of the drums, the Russian regiments entered the city with their banners unfurled. Residents looked with curiosity at the Russian troops. Following the main regiments, Fermor drove into Königsberg. He was handed the keys to the capital of Prussia, as well as to the Pillau fortress, which protected Koenigsberg from the sea. The troops settled down to rest until morning, lit fires for heating, music blared all night, fireworks fired up into the sky.

The next day, thanksgiving prayers of Russians were held in all the churches of Prussia. The single-headed Prussian eagle was everywhere replaced by the double-headed Russian eagle. On January 24, 1758 (on the birthday of the Prussian king, one can easily imagine his condition), the entire population of Prussia swore an oath to Russia - their new homeland! The following fact is cited in history: with his hand on the Bible, the great German philosopher Immanuel Kant took the oath, which was perhaps the most striking episode in his boring life.

The German historian Arkhengolts, who idolized the personality of Frederick II, wrote about this time: “Never before has an independent kingdom been conquered so easily as Prussia. But never have the winners, in the rapture of their success, behaved so modestly as the Russians.

At first glance, these events may seem incredible, some kind of historical paradox: how was this possible? After all, we are talking about the citadel of the Prussian Junkers, from where the ideas of domination over the world originated, from where the German Kaisers took personnel to implement their plans of conquest.

But there is no paradox in this, if we take into account the fact that the Russian army did not capture and occupied Prussia, but joined this ancient Slavic land to Slavic Russia, to Slavic land. The Prussians understood that the Russians would not leave here, they would remain on this Slavic land, once captured German principality of Brandenburg. The war waged by Frederick II devastated Prussia, took people for cannon fodder, horses for cavalry, food and fodder. The Russians who entered the borders of Prussia did not touch the property of local citizens, treated the population of the occupied areas humanely and friendly, even helped the poor in any way they could.

Prussia became a Russian governor-general. It would seem that for Russia the war could be considered over. But the Russian army continued to fulfill its "duties" to the Austrian allies.

Of the battles of 1758, the battle of Zorndorf on August 14, 1758, should be noted, when Frederick, by his maneuver, forced our army to fight on an inverted front. The fierceness of the battle fully corresponded to the name of the place where it took place. Zorndorf (Zorndorf) in German means "angry, furious village." The bloody battle did not end with an operational victory for either side. The result was hard on both sides. Both armies simply crashed into each other. Russian losses - about half of the entire army, Prussians - more than a third. Morally, Zorndorf was a Russian victory and a cruel blow to Friedrich. If earlier he thought with disdain about the Russian troops and their combat capabilities, then after Zorndorf his opinion changed. The Prussian king paid tribute to the steadfastness of the Russian regiments at Zorndorf, stating after the battle: "Russians can be killed to one and all, but you cannot be forced to retreat." http://federacia.ru/encyclopaedia/war/seven/ The resilience of the Russian King Frederick II set an example for his own troops.

Fermor showed himself in the battle of Zorndorf ... He did not show himself in any way, and in the literal sense of the word. For two hours, the Russian troops withstood the destructive fire of the Prussian artillery. The losses were heavy, but the Russian system stood firm, preparing for the decisive battle. And then Willim Fermor left the headquarters and, together with his retinue, galloped off in an unknown direction. In the heat of battle the Russian army was left without a commander. A case unique in the history of world wars! The battle of Zorndorf was fought by Russian officers and soldiers against the king, proceeding from the situation and showing resourcefulness and ingenuity. More than half of the Russian soldiers lay dead, but the battlefield was left to the Russians.

By the night the battle was over, Fermor appeared from nowhere. Where he was during the battle - there is no answer to this question in historical science. Huge losses and the absence of a specific tactical result for the Russian army - this is the logical result of the battle of Zorndorf, carried out without a commander.

After the battle, Frederick retreated to Saxony, where in the autumn of the same (1758) year he was defeated by the Austrians due to the fact that his best soldiers and officers were killed at Zorndorf. Fermor, after an unsuccessful attempt to capture the heavily fortified Kolberg, led the army to winter quarters in the lower reaches of the Vistula. http://www.rusempire.ru/voyny-rossiyskoy-imperii/semiletnyaya-voyna-1756-1763.html

In 1759, Fermor was replaced by Field Marshal Count Saltykov P.S. By that time, the Allies had put up 440,000 men against Prussia, whom Frederick could only oppose with 220,000. On June 26, the Russian army set out from Poznan to the Oder River. July 23 in Frankfurt an der Oder, she joined the Austrian troops. On July 31, Friedrich, with a 48,000-strong army, took up a position near the village of Kunersdorf, hoping to meet here the combined Austro-Russian forces, which greatly outnumbered his troops.

Saltykov's army numbered 41 thousand people, and the Austrian army of General Down - 18.5 thousand people. On August 1, Frederick attacked the left flank of the allied forces. The Prussians managed to capture an important height here and put up a battery there, which brought down fire on the center of the Russian army. The Prussian troops pressed the center and the right flank of the Russians. However, Saltykov managed to create a new front and go on a general counteroffensive. After a 7-hour battle, the Prussian army retreated behind the Oder in disarray. Immediately after the battle, Frederick had only 3,000 soldiers at hand, as the rest scattered around the surrounding villages, and they had to be gathered under the banners for several days.

Kunersdorf is the largest battle of the Seven Years' War and one of the brightest victories of Russian weapons in the 18th century. She nominated Saltykov to a number of outstanding Russian generals. In this battle, he used the traditional Russian military tactics - the transition from defense to offensive. So Alexander Nevsky won on Lake Peipsi, Dmitry Donskoy - on the Kulikovo field, Peter the Great - near Poltava, Minikh - at Stavuchany. For the victory at Kunersdorf, Saltykov received the rank of field marshal. The participants in the battle were awarded a special medal with the inscription "To the Victor over the Prussians".

Campaign of 1760

As Prussia weakened and the end of the war approached, the contradictions in the camp of the allies escalated. Each of them achieved his own goals, which did not coincide with the intentions of his partners. Thus, France did not want the complete defeat of Prussia and wanted to keep it in opposition to Austria. She, in turn, sought to weaken the Prussian power as much as possible, but sought to do it with the hands of the Russians. On the other hand, both Austria and France were unanimous that Russia should not be allowed to grow stronger, and persistently protested against the annexation of East Prussia to it. The Russians, who on the whole had fulfilled their tasks in the war, were now sought to be used by Austria to conquer Silesia. When discussing the plan for 1760, Saltykov proposed to transfer hostilities to Pomerania (an area on the Baltic coast). According to the commander, this region remained not devastated by the war and it was easy to get food there. In Pomerania, the Russian army could interact with the Baltic Fleet and receive reinforcements by sea, which strengthened its position in this region. In addition, the occupation of the Baltic coast of Prussia by the Russians sharply reduced its trade relations and increased Frederick's economic difficulties. However, the Austrian leadership managed to convince Empress Elizabeth Petrovna to transfer the Russian army to Silesia for joint operations. As a result, Russian troops were fragmented. Insignificant forces were sent to Pomerania, to the siege of Kolberg (now the Polish city of Kolobrzeg), and the main ones - to Silesia. The campaign in Silesia was characterized by inconsistency in the actions of the allies and Saltykov's unwillingness to kill his soldiers in order to protect the interests of Austria. At the end of August, Saltykov fell seriously ill, and command soon passed to Field Marshal Alexander Buturlin. The only striking episode in this campaign was the capture by the corps of General Zakhar Chernyshev (23 thousand people) of Berlin.

Capture of Berlin (1760). On September 22, a Russian cavalry detachment under the command of General Totleben approached Berlin. In the city there were, according to the testimony of the prisoners, only three battalions of infantry and several squadrons of cavalry. After a short artillery preparation, Totleben stormed the capital of Prussia on the night of September 23. At midnight, the Russians broke into the Gallic Gates, but were repulsed. The next morning, the Prussian corps headed by the Prince of Württemberg (14 thousand people) approached Berlin. But at the same time, Chernyshev's corps arrived in time for Totleben. By September 27, the 13,000th Austrian corps also approached the Russians. Then the Prince of Württemberg with his troops left the city in the evening. At 3 am on September 28, parliamentarians arrived from the city with a message of consent to surrender to the Russians. After spending four days in the capital of Prussia, Chernyshev destroyed the mint, the arsenal, took possession of the royal treasury and took an indemnity of 1.5 million thalers from the city authorities. But soon the Russians left the city at the news of the approach of the Prussian army led by King Frederick II. According to Saltykov, the abandonment of Berlin was due to the inaction of the Austrian commander-in-chief Daun, who gave the Prussian king the opportunity to "beat us as much as he pleases." The capture of Berlin was of more financial than military importance to the Russians. No less important was the symbolic side of this operation. This was the first ever capture of Berlin by Russian troops. Interestingly, in April 1945, before the decisive assault on the German capital, Soviet soldiers received a symbolic gift - copies of the keys to Berlin, handed over by the Germans to Chernyshev's soldiers in 1760.

"NOTE. RUSFACT .RU: "...When Friedrich found out that Berlin, during its occupation by the Russians, received only minor damage, he said: "Thanks to the Russians, they saved Berlin from the horrors with which the Austrians threatened my capital." These words were recorded in history by witnesses. But at the same moment, Friedrich gave one of his closest writers the task of writing a detailed memoir about what “atrocities the Russian barbarians committed in Berlin". The task was completed, and malicious lies began to circulate throughout Europe. But there were people, real Germans, who wrote The truth is known, for example, the opinion about the presence of Russian troops in Berlin, which was expressed by the great German scientist Leonhard Euler, who treated both Russia and the king of Prussia equally well. He wrote to one of his friends: “We had a visit here that would have been extremely pleasant under other circumstances. However, I always wished that if Berlin was ever destined to be occupied by foreign troops, then let it be Russians ... "

Voltaire, in letters to Russian friends, admired the nobility, steadfastness and discipline of the Russian troops. He wrote: "Your troops in Berlin make a more favorable impression than all of Metastasio's operas."

... The keys to Berlin were transferred to St. Petersburg for eternal storage, where they are still in the Kazan Cathedral. More than 180 years after these events, the ideological heir of Frederick II and his admirer Adolf Hitler tried to seize St. Petersburg and take the keys to his capital, but this task turned out to be too tough for the demoniac furer ... " http://znaniya-sila.narod. ru/solarsis/zemlya/earth_19_05_2.htm)

Campaign of 1761

In 1761, the Allies again failed to reach concerted action. This allowed Frederick, successfully maneuvering, to once again avoid defeat. The main Russian forces continued to act ineffectively together with the Austrians in Silesia. But major success fell to the lot of Russian units in Pomerania. This success was the capture of Kolberg.

Capture of Kolberg (1761). The first Russian attempts to take Kolberg (1758 and 1760) ended in failure. In September 1761 a third attempt was made. This time, the 22,000-strong corps of General Pyotr Rumyantsev, the hero of Gross-Jägersdorf and Kunersdorf, was moved to Kolberg. In August 1761, Rumyantsev, using the tactics of loose formation, new for those times, defeated the Prussian army under the command of the Prince of Württemberg (12 thousand people) on the outskirts of the fortress. In this battle and in the future, the Russian ground forces were supported by the Baltic Fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Polyansky. On September 3, the Rumyantsev Corps began the siege. It lasted four months and was accompanied by actions not only against the fortress, but also against the Prussian troops, who threatened the besiegers from the rear. The military council spoke three times in favor of lifting the siege, and only the unyielding will of Rumyantsev made it possible to bring the matter to a successful end. On December 5, 1761, the garrison of the fortress (4 thousand people), seeing that the Russians were not leaving and were going to continue the siege in the winter, capitulated. The capture of Kolberg allowed Russian troops capture the Baltic coast of Prussia.

The battles for Kolberg made an important contribution to the development of Russian and world military art. Here the beginning of a new military tactic of loose formation was laid. It was under the walls of Kolberg that the famous Russian light infantry, the rangers, was born, the experience of which was then used by other European armies. Near Kolberg, Rumyantsev first used battalion columns in combination with loose formation. This experience was then effectively used by Suvorov. This method of combat appeared in the West only during the wars of the French Revolution.

Peace with Prussia (1762). The capture of Kolberg was the last victory of the Russian army in the Seven Years' War. The news of the surrender of the fortress found Empress Elizabeth Petrovna on her deathbed. New Russian emperor Peter III concluded a separate peace with Prussia, then an alliance and free of charge returned to her all her territories, which by that time had been captured by the Russian army. This saved Prussia from inevitable defeat. Moreover, in 1762, Frederick managed, with the help of Chernyshev's corps, which was now temporarily operating as part of the Prussian army, to oust the Austrians from Silesia. Although Peter III was overthrown in June 1762 by Catherine II and the union treaty was annulled, the war was not resumed. The number of those killed in the Russian army in the Seven Years' War amounted to 120 thousand people. Of these, approximately 80% were those who died from diseases, including from the smallpox epidemic. The excess of sanitary losses over combat losses was at that time also characteristic of other countries participating in the war. It should be noted that the end of the war with Prussia was not only the result of the moods of Peter III. It had more serious reasons. Russia achieved its main goal - the weakening of the Prussian state. However, its complete collapse was hardly part of the plans of Russian diplomacy, since it strengthened, first of all, Austria - Russia's main competitor in the future division of the European part. Ottoman Empire. And the war itself has long threatened a financial catastrophe for the Russian economy. Another question is that the "chivalrous" gesture of Peter III towards Frederick II did not allow Russia to take full advantage of the fruits of its victories.

Results of the war. A fierce struggle was also going on in other theaters of military operations of the Seven Years' War: in the colonies and at sea. According to the Treaty of Hubertusburg in 1763 with Austria and Saxony, Prussia secured Silesia. Under the Paris Peace Treaty of 1763, Canada, East. Louisiana, most of the French possessions in India. The main result of the Seven Years' War was the victory of Great Britain over France in the struggle for colonial and commercial superiority.

For Russia, the consequences of the Seven Years' War turned out to be much more valuable than its results. She significantly increased the combat experience, military art and authority of the Russian army in Europe, which had previously been seriously shaken by Minich's wanderings in the steppe. In the battles of this campaign, a generation of outstanding commanders (Rumyantsev, Suvorov) and soldiers were born who achieved striking victories in the "age of Catherine". It can be said that most of Catherine's successes in foreign policy was prepared by the victories of Russian weapons in the Seven Years' War. In particular, Prussia suffered huge losses in this war and could not actively interfere with Russian policy in the West in the second half of the 18th century. In addition, under the influence of impressions brought from the fields of Europe, in Russian society after the Seven Years' War, ideas about agrarian innovations, rationalization Agriculture. Interest in foreign culture is also growing, in particular, in literature and art. All these sentiments were developed in the next reign.

The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) got its name from its length in time. It was the largest conflict of the 18th century. It happened not only...

Causes and results of the Seven Years' War. Major battles of the Seven Years' War 1756-1763

By Masterweb

The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) got its name from its length in time. It was the largest conflict of the 18th century. It took place not only in Europe, but also in North America, India, and the Caribbean. At one time, Churchill called it "the First World War." In history, this conflict is referred to as the third Silesian, Pomeranian, Carnatic, French-Indian, Recent War.

Causes

The main causes of the Seven Years' War were hidden behind the confrontation of world powers for colonies in North America. Military clashes there began two years before the declaration of war. England and France were the main rivals. Colonists from these countries unleashed an armed conflict. Allied Indians also took part in it. Another reason was the strengthening of Prussia in Europe. Many developed countries did not like this.

Other countries joined coalitions for their own benefit:

• Austria wanted Silesia back.
• Prussia hoped to capture Saxony.
• Sweden sought to retake Stettin and a number of other lands.
• Russia fought for East Prussia.

Countries united in coalitions. One included England, Prussia, Hanover, the other - France, Austria, Russia, Spain. This was rather unusual, since France and Austria had long fought each other for hegemony in Europe.

Opponents

The main states that participated in the Seven Years' War (opponents) and their commanders-in-chief:

• Prussia was ruled by Frederick II. He was the emperor and commander-in-chief in one person, so he did not have to report to anyone.
• England - King was George II.
• Austria - Maria Theresa was at the head of the state, Karl Alexander was appointed commander. But after the unsuccessful battle of Leuthen, he resigned, the command passed to Leopold Joseph.
• Russia - the rules in the country are Elizaveta Petrovna, the commander-in-chief was first Apraksin, he was replaced by Fermor, then Saltykov and Buturlin. They were subordinate to the St. Petersburg Conference. Later, Peter the Third became emperor.
• France - Louis XV was the emperor, the commanders succeeded each other as a result of intrigues and frequent defeats. Le Tellier was appointed first, then Richelieu, de Bourbon-Condé, Erasmus, Victor-Francois, de Rogan.

Invasion of Saxony

Officially, the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) began with the Prussian invasion of Saxony. Frederick the Second entered its territory on August 28, 1756. A couple of days later, Russia declared war on Prussia.

The 33,000-strong Austrian army came to the aid of Saxony. But she was broken. Saxony had only eighteen thousand soldiers. They could not resist the two hundred thousandth Prussian army, so they capitulated. Frederick II drove the Saxons into his army, and in vain. Throughout the war, they ran across to the enemy in battalions.

It was important for Frederick the Second to seize these lands in order to transfer hostilities to the side of the enemy. He was also able to use the human and material resources of wealthy Saxony.

Major battles in Europe

During such a long period of war, many battles were fought. Main battles of the Seven Years' War:

• Under Kolin - took place on 06/18/1757. The battle lasted six hours. Austria had fifty-four thousand men, and Prussia thirty-five thousand. Frederick II was intoxicated with success, but miscalculated his strength and lost.
• Under Leithen, it happened on 12/05/1757. Thirty-two thousand soldiers marched from the Prussian side, while Austria had eighty thousand soldiers. Despite such a numerical superiority, the army under the command of Prince Charles Alexander lost.
• Under Rosbach - took place on 11/05/1757. French troops in the amount of forty-three thousand people could not invade Prussia, because they were defeated by twenty-two thousand soldiers of Frederick II.
• Zorndorf - happened on 08/25/1758. Russian forces (forty-two thousand soldiers) clashed with Frederick II (thirty-three thousand). The battle was bloody. The Russian troops lost sixteen thousand, and the Prussians eleven thousand. The fight ended in nothing.
• Kunersdorf - took place on August 12, 1759. Frederick the Second, with thirty-five thousand troops, opposed forty-one thousand Russian soldiers under the command of Semenovich. The Prussian army was defeated.
• Under Torgay, it happened on 11/03/1760. Considered the last major battle of the war. The forces of Prussia (forty-four thousand) and Austria (fifty-three thousand) clashed. The losses of both sides were colossal - sixteen thousand soldiers on each side. The victory was for Frederick II.

Having lost a significant part of his army in battles, the Prussian ruler began to protect it from bloody battles. The war continued for another three years, but everything was limited to maneuvers and marches. The main battles of the Seven Years' War were fought only in the early years.

North American Front

Events in North America began as early as 1754, when there was a skirmish at Great Meadows between colonists from England and France. At first, the French were losing ground, but united with the Indians, they were able to win the Battle of Monongahela in 1755. After a series of battles on May 17, 1756, England declares war on Louis XV.

The decisive battle took place in 1759 near Quebec. The French outnumbered the British. The difference was four thousand soldiers. However, the English subjects had the best training and won. Quebec was taken, and a year later Montreal was captured. The result of the Seven Years' War was the displacement of the French from Canada.

Asian front

In 1757, the British and French seized land from each other in Bengal and India. There was also a struggle for dominance in the Indian Ocean between the two fleets. In 1759, French ships left the Indian coast.

The ground forces of Louis XV were also not up to par. In 1760, they were defeated at Vandivash, and a year later the British achieved the capitulation of the enemy from the capital of French India. Such results of the Seven Years' War suited George II quite well.

The British conducted military operations in the Philippines in 1762 against Spain. However, they could not stay there for a long time and in 1765 completed the evacuation from the islands. The result of the Seven Years' War in the Philippines was the impetus for new anti-Spanish uprisings of the local population. However, they cannot be called successful. The Philippines remained under Spanish rule until 1898 when it was taken over by the United States.

Losses

Losses among the warring states:

• Austria - four hundred thousand soldiers;
• Prussia - about two hundred thousand;
• France - up to two hundred thousand;
• Russia - about one hundred and forty thousand;
• England - twenty thousand.

No one can name the number of killed natives of North America, India and other colonies for which the war was fought. What were the results of the Seven Years' War? Were they worth the sacrifice? Did the war resolve the contradictions between the strongest powers of Europe at that time?

Results of the Seven Years' War

Between the warring countries signed four peace treaties. Each of them had its own characteristics:

• Petersburg - already signed by Peter the Third. Under the agreement, Russia withdrew from the conflict and voluntarily transferred to Prussia its lands, which were occupied by Russian soldiers. Subsequently, these actions of Peter III became one of the reasons for the coup and accession to the throne of Catherine II.
• Hamburg - concluded between Sweden and Prussia. Peace was established on the terms of the withdrawal of Swedish troops from the occupied territories. The parties released the prisoners without ransom.
• Parisian - it was concluded by four states at once. England and Portugal negotiated with France and Spain. Louis XV refused Canada, Nova Scotia, the islands of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Ohio Valley. Spain received Havana from England, but conceded Florida. England received Puerto Rico, Menorca was returned to her, but she gave Martinique and Guadeloupe to France. Spain received Louisiana but pledged to withdraw troops from Portugal. France had to leave Hanover, Senegal. The state of Louis XV was allowed to fish near Newfoundland, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
• Hubertusburg - ended the war. Was signed between Austria, Prussia, Saxony. Maria Theresa renounced Silesia and Graudenz, and Frederick II did not demand compensation for damages. Troops were withdrawn from foreign lands, prisoners of war were released or demobilized. Under a secret agreement, Prussia was going to vote for the son of Maria Theresa in the election of the head of the Holy Roman Empire.

Many contemporaries were perplexed about the peace treaty between European states. So much blood was shed, and as a result, the pre-war status quo was restored. However, this is not quite true.

In Europe, the Seven Years' War was fought between an alliance of France, Russia, Sweden, Austria and Saxony against Prussia, Hanover and Great Britain from 1756 to 1763. However, the war was global in nature. Mainly because Britain and France were vying for dominance in North America and India. Thus, it has been called the first "world war". The North American theater of war was called the "French and Indian" war, and in Germany the Seven Years' War is known as the "Third Silesian War".

Diplomatic revolution

The treaty signed in Aix-la-Chapelle, which ended the War of the Austrian Succession in 1748, in fact turned out to be only a truce, a temporary stop to the war. Austria, angry at Prussia and its own allies for the loss of a rich land - Silesia - began to review alliances and search for alternatives. The growing power and influence of Prussia worried Russia and raised the question of conducting a "preventive" war. Prussia believed it would take another war to keep Silesia.

In the 1750s, as tensions escalated in North America between British and French colonists competing for North American lands, she tried to prevent a subsequent war destabilizing Europe by changing her alliances. These actions, and the change in policy of the Prussian King Frederick II, known to many of his later followers as Frederick the Great, sparked the so-called "Diplomatic Revolution" as the previous system of alliances broke down and a new one was formed: Austria, France and Russia united against Britain, Prussia and Hanover.

Europe: Friedrich seeks immediate retribution

In May 1756, Britain and France formally declared war on each other, prompted by French attacks on Menorca; recently negotiated treaties have deterred other nations from trying to intervene. With new alliances, Austria was ready to strike at Prussia and take back Silesia, and Russia was also planning a similar initiative, so Frederick II, aware of the conflict that had begun, tried to gain an advantage.

He wanted to crush Austria before France and Russia could mobilize by occupying as much enemy territory as possible. Therefore, Frederick attacked Saxony in August 1756 to try to break the alliance with Austria, seize Saxon resources and organize the military campaign planned for 1757. Under pressure from the Prussian army, Saxony capitulated. Frederick took its capital, forcibly included the Saxons in his army, and sucked huge funds out of Saxony.

The Prussian forces then advanced into Bohemia, but eventually failed to gain a foothold there and retreated back into Saxony. In the spring of 1757, on May 6, the Prussians blockaded the Austrian army in Prague. However, another Austrian army came to the aid of the besieged. Fortunately for the Austrians, Frederick lost the battle on June 18 at the Battle of Kolin and was forced to leave Bohemia.

Prussia under attack

Prussia was under attack from all sides, as the French forces routed the Hanoverians, commanded by an English general (the King of England was also King of Hanover), and headed for Prussia, while Russia entered Prussia from the east. The Russian army eventually retreated, re-occupying East Prussia the following January. Sweden, which fought against Prussia on the side of the Franco-Russian-Austrian alliance, also initially successfully opposed Prussia. For some time Frederick was depressed, but he proved himself a brilliant general, defeating the vastly superior French and Austrian forces: the French army at Rosbach on November 5, and the Austrian army at Leuthen on December 5. But none of these victories were enough to force either Austria or France to capitulate.

From that moment on, the French set their sights on Hanover, which had recovered from the defeat, and did not fight with Frederick, while he, quickly redeploying his troops, defeated the enemy armies one after another, preventing them from effectively uniting. Austria soon ceased to fight Prussia in the wide open spaces, which allowed the Prussian army to maneuver excellently, despite the fact that this was accompanied by heavy losses among the Prussians. Britain began pursuing the French coast to try and draw off the troops, and Prussia drove the Swedes out.

Europe: victories and defeats

The British ignored the surrender of their Hanoverian army and returned to the region to contain France. This new British-Prussian army, commanded by a close ally of Frederick (his brother-in-law), kept the French forces occupied in the west away from Prussia and the French colonies. They won the Battle of Minden in 1759 and carried out a series of strategic maneuvers to tie up the enemy armies.

As stated above, Frederick attacked Austria but was outnumbered during the siege and forced to retreat. Then he fought with the Russians in Zorndorf, but suffered heavy losses (a third of his army was killed). He was battered by Austria at Hochkirch, again losing a third of his army. By the end of the year he had cleared Prussia and Silesia of enemy armies, but was severely weakened, unable to continue larger offensives. Austria was very pleased with this.

By this time, all the belligerents had spent huge sums on the war. In the Battle of Kunersdorf in August 1759, Friedrich was utterly defeated by the Austro-Russian army. On the battlefield, he lost 40% of the troops, although he managed to save the rest of the army. Thanks to Austrian and Russian caution, delays and disagreements, the victory over Prussia was not carried to its logical conclusion, and Frederick avoided capitulation.

In 1760, Frederick failed another siege, but won minor battles against the Austrians, although at the battle of Torgau he emerged victorious due to his subordinates, and not his own military talents. France, with some support from Austria, tried to bring about peace. By the end of 1761, with the enemy wintering on Prussian soil, things were looking bad for Frederick, whose once highly skilled army was now overwhelmed by hastily recruited recruits (well outnumbered by the enemy armies).

Friedrich could no longer perform marches and detours, and sat on the defensive. If Frederick's enemies had overcome their apparent inability to coordinate (thanks to xenophobia, enmity, confusion, class differences, etc.), the Prussians might already have been defeated. Contrary to only part of Prussia, Frederick's efforts looked doomed, despite the fact that Austria was in dire financial straits.

The death of Elizabeth as the salvation of Prussia

Friedrich hoped for a miracle, and it happened. The Russian Empress Elizabeth II died, and Tsar Peter III became her successor. The new emperor was favorable to Prussia and made an immediate peace by sending Russian troops to help Frederick. And although soon Peter (who even tried to invade Denmark) was killed, the new empress - Peter's wife, Catherine the Great - continued to comply with the peace agreements, but withdrew Russian army who helped Friedrich. This freed Frederick's hands and allowed him to win the battles against Austria. Britain seized the opportunity to break its alliance with Prussia (due in part to the mutual antipathy between Frederick and the new British Prime Minister) and declared war on Spain. Spain invaded Portugal but was stopped by the British.

World War

Although British troops fought on the Continent, Britain chose to limit itself to financial support for Frederick and Hanover (subsidies greater than anything ever given in the history of the British crown) rather than fighting in Europe. This made it possible to send troops and fleets to a completely different part of the world. The British had been fighting in North America since 1754, and the government of William Pitt decided to give even more priority to the war in America and to strike with their powerful navy against the French imperial possessions, where France was most vulnerable.

In contrast, France first focused on Europe, planning an invasion of Britain, but that opportunity was dashed by the Battle of Quiberon Bay in 1759, destroying what was left of France's Atlantic naval power and its ability to hold colonies in the Americas. By 1760, England had effectively won the "French and Indian" war in North America, but the world was waiting for the end of hostilities in other theaters.

In 1759, a small opportunistic British grouping did not suffer any losses and gained a large number of valuables, captured Fort Louis on the Senegal River in Africa. Thus, by the end of the year, all French trading posts in Africa were in the hands of the British. Britain then attacked France in the West Indies, taking the rich island of Guadeloupe and moving on to other targets for its enrichment. The British East India Company attacked the French colonies in India and, thanks to the large British Royal Navy dominating the Indian Ocean as well as the Atlantic, drove France out of the region. By the end of the war, the British Empire had grown considerably, while the territory of the French possessions had been greatly reduced. England and Spain also declared war on each other, and Britain crushed her new enemy by capturing Havana and a quarter of the ships of the Spanish navy.

World

Neither Prussia, nor Austria, nor Russia or France were able to achieve the decisive advantage in the war necessary for the surrender of their enemies, and by 1763 the war in Europe had so exhausted the belligerents that the powers began to seek peace. Austria faced bankruptcy and the inability to continue the war without Russia, France was winning abroad and did not want to fight for Austria in Europe, while England sought to consolidate global success and put an end to France's resources. Prussia intended to return to the pre-war state of affairs, but as the peace negotiations dragged on, Frederick sucked as much out of Saxony as he could, including kidnapping the girls and placing them in depopulated areas of Prussia.

The Treaty of Paris was signed on February 10, 1763. He settled the problems between Britain, Spain and France, detracting from the latter, who was once the greatest power in Europe. Britain returned Havana to Spain, but received Florida in return. France ceded Louisiana to Spain, while England received all French lands in North America east of the Mississippi except New Orleans. Britain also received most of the West Indies, Senegal, Menorca and lands in India. Hanover remained with the British. On February 10, 1763, the Hubertusburg Peace Treaty, signed between Prussia and Austria, confirmed the status quo: it secured Silesia and achieved the status of a "great power", while Saxony remained behind Austria. As historian Fred Anderson noted, “Millions were spent and tens of thousands died, but nothing changed.”

Results

Britain remained the dominant world power, albeit heavily indebted, which led to increased exploitation of the colonies in North America, and, as a result, the war of independence of the British colonies (another global conflict that will end in British defeat). France approached an economic disaster and the ensuing revolution. Prussia lost 10% of its population, but, crucially for Frederick's reputation, it survived an alliance of Austria, Russia and France that wanted to reduce Prussian influence or even destroy it, although historians like Szabo say that Frederick's role is too exaggerated.

Reforms followed in many belligerent states and armies, as Austrian fears that Europe was on the path to catastrophic militarism were well founded. Austria's failure to subjugate Prussia doomed her to competition between them for the future of Germany, benefiting Russia and France, and led to the emergence of the German Empire under the primacy of Prussia. The war also shifted the balance of diplomacy, with Spain and Holland declining in importance to two new Great Powers - and Russia. Saxony was robbed and destroyed.

The Seven Years' War is one of the saddest events in Russian history. Having achieved great success on the territory of Prussia, the Emperor was replaced in Russia, who did not lay claim to the Prussian lands. It was Peter III, who idolized Frederick II.

The reason for this war (1756-1762) was the aggressive policy of Prussia, which sought to expand its borders. The reason for Russia's entry into the war was the attack of Prussia on Saxony and the capture of the cities of Dresden and Leipzig.

The seven-year war involved Russia, France, Austria, Sweden on one side, Prussia and England on the other. Russia declared war on Prussia on 1.09. 1756

During this protracted war, Russia managed to take part in several major battles, and change three commanders-in-chief of the Russian troops. It is worth noting that at the beginning of the Seven Years' War, King Frederick II of Prussia had the nickname "invincible".

Field Marshal Apraksin, the first commander in chief of the Russian army in the Seven Years' War, had been preparing the army's offensive for almost a year. He occupied the Prussian cities very slowly, the speed of the advance of the Russian troops deep into Prussia left much to be desired. Friedrich was contemptuous of the Russian army and went to fight in the Czech Republic, with his main troops.

The first major battle of the Seven Years' War, with the participation of the Russian army, took place near the village of Gross-Egersdorf. The Russian army consisted of 55 thousand people, who had 100 artillery guns. General Levald attacked the Russian army. The situation was threatening. The situation was corrected by a bayonet attack by several regiments of Rumyantsev. Apraksin reached the Keninsberg fortress and, standing under its walls, ordered the Russian army to retreat. Apraksin was arrested for his actions, he was charged with treason, he died during one of the interrogations.

General Fermor became the new commander of the Russian army. He moved Russian troops to Prussia, having 60 thousand people at his disposal. In the Battle of Zorndorf, the King of Prussia decided to personally defeat the Russian troops. At night, the Germans went to the rear of the Russian army and deployed artillery on the hills. The Russian army had to deploy the entire front of its attack. The battle was fierce, with varying success. As a result, having lost a lot of strength, the armies dispersed without revealing the winner.

Soon the Russian army was headed by Saltykov, one of the associates of Peter I. The commander-in-chief suggested joining the Russian army with the Austrian one and suggested moving to Berlin. The Austrians were afraid of the strengthening of Russia and refused such actions. In 1760, the corps of General Chernyshev took Berlin. Prussia suffered a major blow to its prestige.

In 1761, the Russian army again had a new commander-in-chief, Buturlin, who went with the main forces to Silesia. In the north, Rumyantsev was left to storm the fortress of Kolberg. Rumyantsevthe Russian fleet helped very actively. The future took part in the assault on Kolberg great commander Alexander Vasilievich Suvorov. Soon the fortress was taken.

In the following years, Prussia was on the brink of disaster. The Seven Years' War was to bring Russia great honors and new lands. But everything was decided by chance. Empress Elizabeth died on December 25, 1761, and Peter III, a great admirer of Frederick, ascended the throne. The Seven Years' War was stopped. Now the Russian troops had to clear Prussia of the former allies….