Russian geographers and ethnographers made a significant contribution to world science. P.P. Semenov, who became famous for his study of hard-to-reach areas of the Tien Shan, possessed encyclopedic knowledge in the field of geography, geology, botany, and statistics. The regions of Central Asia were studied by N.M. Przhevalsky. N.N. Miklouho-Maclay devoted many years to the study of New Guinea.
Russian technology achieved great success during these years. A.F. Mozhaisky successfully worked in the field of aircraft construction; K.E. Tsiolkovsky was engaged in research in the field of airship construction, aerodynamics, and rocket engines. The works of N.N. Bernados and N.S. Slavyanov (electric welding), M.O. Dolivo-Dobrovolsky (electric motors), D.K. Chernov (metallurgy), S.O. Makarov (shipbuilding) gained European fame. A.S. Popov (radio) and many other Russian scientists.
Social sciences received noticeable development in the 60-90s. Russian materialist traditions found their development in the works of A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov, D.I. Pisarev on philosophy, history, and political economy. Later, in the 80-90s, the period of spread of Marxism in Russia begins.
The idealistic direction in Russian philosophy also developed, receiving a new impetus in the works of the largest representative of Russian religious-mystical idealism V.S. Solovyov.
A huge contribution to Russian historical science was the 29-volume work of S.M. Solovyov, “The History of Russia from Ancient Times.” In the 80-90s, his student, the outstanding Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky, read his “Course of Russian History” in higher educational institutions.
The interest in people's life, characteristic of the Russian democratic movement, was reflected in the works of Russian philologists. In 1861-1868 V.I. Dahl created the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language”; the works of A.N. Afanasyev, F.I. Buslaev, I.I. Sreznevsky and others became very famous.
Russian literature of the 60-90s
In the post-reform years, critical realism flourished in Russian literature. Our country has given the world a galaxy of brilliant writers who have brought glory to the national culture. At this time, L.N. Tolstoy, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, I.A. Goncharov, A.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A.P. Chekhov wrote. The literature of this period is characterized by close attention to man, deep penetration into his inner world and at the same time a breadth of analysis of Russian reality, protest against injustice and social evil in all spheres of public life. The peaks of Russian poetry in these years were the work of the democratic poet N.A. Nekrasov, the subtle lyricists F.I. Tyutchev,
A.A. Feta, A.N. Maykova. The theatrical life of the country was intense. An entire era in the history of Russian theater was made up of the plays of A.N. Ostrovsky. The leading drama theaters in Russia at that time were the Maly Theater in Moscow and the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg, on whose stages P.M. Sadovsky, M.N. Ermolova, A.I. Yuzhin (Sumbatov), P.A. Strepetova, M.G. Savina and many other wonderful actors.
Music
Russian musical culture developed national traditions. Innovation and democracy distinguished a large group of composers who created a creative association (the “mighty handful”), the ideological inspirer of which was the famous critic V.V. Stasov. This association included L.P. Mussorgsky, A.P. Borodin, N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, Ts.A. Cui, M.A. Balakirev.
The symphonies, operas, ballets, and musical plays of the greatest Russian composer P.I. Tchaikovsky gained worldwide fame.
Russian national opera, ballet, and symphonic music experienced a flourishing period during these years. The centers of the country's musical life are the St. Petersburg and Moscow Conservatories, whose directors were A.G. and N.G. Rubinstein.
art
In the post-reform years, the process of creating a national art school continued in Russian fine arts. In the fight against the routine canons of state-owned official art (the bearer of which was the Academy of Arts at that time), the realistic direction became stronger, gaining a strong position in Russian painting. In 1863, a group of Academy graduates led by I.N. Kramskoy refused to take part in the gold medal competition. Outside the Academy, they created the "Artel of Artists" - a democratic association whose members were united by common professional and ideological views.
In the fall of 1870, N.I. Kramskoy, V.G. Perov, N.N. Ge and G.G. Myasoedov founded the “Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions”, which existed until 1923. Paintings by the “Itinerants” were regularly exhibited at exhibitions in various cities of Russia, causing wide interest among the democratic public.
The canvases of the famous Russian artist I.E. Repin ("Barge Haulers on the Volga", "Religious Procession in the Kursk Province", "Ivan the Terrible and His Son Ivan", etc.), paintings by V.I. Surikov, V. M. Vasnetsova, V.V. Vereshchagina.
The largest Russian sculptors in these years were M.M. Antokolsky, A.M. Opekushin, M.O. Mikeshin.
Famous collectors and patrons of the arts played a major role in the development of Russian fine art. Thus, through the efforts of P.M. Tretyakov, an art gallery (Tretyakov Gallery) was opened in Moscow, which became a real treasury of national painting.
Architecture
Russian architecture of the period under review gradually mastered new building materials and technologies (metal structures, concrete, etc.), which made it possible to give buildings a qualitatively new look. With the development of capitalism in Russia, new demands began to be placed on buildings for utilitarian purposes. When constructing factory buildings, train stations, and apartment buildings (in which apartments were rented out), the feasibility of certain architectural solutions comes first. The buildings of the 70-90s are characterized by a mixture of styles (eclecticism), at the same time, much attention is paid to national traditions, which are reflected in the so-called “pseudo-Russian” style. During these years, entire neighborhoods were quickly built up in St. Petersburg and Moscow, working suburbs emerged in large industrial cities, and much attention was paid to urban planning (Odessa, Riga and other cities).
Russian culture of the post-reform period was closely connected with the enormous changes that took place in the economic, political and social spheres of the country; relying on a broad democratic movement, it took a huge step forward and received international recognition.
RESULTS OF RUSSIAN CIRCUMSTANCES AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCE
Russian voyages around the world in the first half of the 19th century. completed an important stage in the history of navigation and geographical discoveries. They were the most massive of all voyages that took place in the history of the Russian sailing fleet and covered vast areas of the World Ocean. In 1854, the first steam ship arrived from the Baltic Sea to the seas of the Far East, and three years later the construction of military sailing ships was stopped in Russia. A new era was beginning - the dominance of the steam, and later the diesel fleet. Expeditions could now freely sail the oceans in any given direction, regardless of winds and currents. Travel time was reduced many times. Russian circumnavigations continued to expand knowledge about our planet and made a significant contribution to the history of geographical discoveries and exploration of the World Ocean.The most important event in geographical terms was the discovery of the new continent of Antarctica in the Antarctic waters of the Atlantic Ocean by the expedition of F. Bellingshausen - M. Lazarev. The discovery of Antarctica is the greatest geographical discovery of the 19th century. Significant geographical discoveries, in addition to the discovery of Antarctica, were made in the Pacific Ocean, in its tropical and Antarctic parts. Scientific expeditions led by O. E. Kotzebue, F. F. Bellingshausen, M. P. Lazarev and F. P. Litke undertook a special study of the waters in these areas. They discovered and described numerous coral “low-lying” islands, and in some cases entire archipelagos of islands in the system of Tuamotu, Marshall and Caroline islands (Fig. 13).
Russian geographical discoveries in the Pacific Ocean were highly appreciated by progressive foreign naturalists and undoubtedly had a profound influence on them. As we have already indicated above, Charles Darwin used the material of Russian scientists in creating a theory about the origin of coral islands, and in describing them in detail he directly used the advice of Krusenstern and Litke, as well as the works of Kotzebue, Bellingshausen, Lisyansky, Lazarev and others. He gives characteristic descriptions of the atolls of Rimsky-Korsakov, Menshikov, Rumyantsev, Suvorov and many others. Here is what Darwin wrote about some of the archipelagos of the Pacific Ocean in his work: “We are well acquainted with this group (Marshall Islands - V.E.) from the excellent maps of individual islands compiled during Kotzebue’s two expeditions; a smaller map of the entire group can be seen in Krusenstern’s atlas and in Kotzebue’s second voyage.” "The Caroline Archipelago is well known mainly due to Litke's hydrographic works".
The memory of the achievements of Russian navigators and scientists lives in the names of geographical objects. And today on world maps we see Russian names in the names of islands of archipelagos, harbors, etc. Part of the Tuamotu islands in the central part of the Pacific Ocean, for example, is called the Russian Islands. In the Antarctic sector of the Pacific Ocean, the Russians discovered the islands of Peter I and Alexander Land, and also described many of the group of South Shetland Islands. Inventories of little-known coasts were of great importance, especially in the northwestern part of North America and northeast Asia, as well as Sakhalin Island, the Kuril and Aleutian Islands. Important discoveries in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean were Kotzebue's discoveries in the Bering Sea, as well as G.I. Nevelsky's inventory of the Tatar Strait and the mouth of the Amur. Nevelskoy's voyage proved that Sakhalin is an island and opened a shipping route along the Amur River, helping to consolidate Russia's influence in the Far East.
Rice. 14. Title page of “Atlas” by I. F. Krusenstern
Rice. 15. Title page of “Atlas” by G. A. Sarychev
A great contribution was made by Russian circumnavigators to the study of the physical and chemical properties of the World Ocean and atmosphere. The crews of the ships, participating in the voyages, made quite a variety of observations of the weather: air temperature, atmospheric pressure, cloudiness, precipitation, direction and strength of wind and other phenomena. Sailing on small ships, Russian scientists and navigators were able to do a lot in science and, moreover, at a time when other states had not achieved similar results. “In other words,” wrote Yu.M. Shokalsky, “Russian sailors showed not only diligence in their work, but also showed outstanding initiative in scientific work on the study of the ocean.” Russian scientists and navigators not only made good use of the knowledge about natural phenomena in the ocean and atmosphere of previous researchers, but also made a significant contribution to the development of these branches of natural science.
Navigations helped to clarify the patterns of movement of air masses in the atmosphere and water circulation in the World Ocean.
Russian geographical discoveries in the Pacific Ocean served as material for the compilation of more accurate maps and atlases used for navigation and other purposes. The outstanding cartographic works of the first quarter of the 19th century, in addition to the atlases compiled by each expedition, were the “Atlases” created by I. F. Kruzenshtern and G. A. Sarychev. Kruzenshtern’s “Atlas of the South Sea” (Fig. 14), published in two parts (1 part - St. Petersburg, 1824; II part - St. Petersburg, 1826), included maps and plans about the waters of the Pacific Ocean as a whole. The first part of the Atlas contains 21 maps and 11 plans of the southern part of the ocean, the second - 23 maps and 7 plans of its northern part. The atlas was accompanied by the publication of hydrological records (Part I - 1823, Part II - 1826, Part III - 1836). The most interesting in the atlas are the “General Maps” of both parts of the Pacific Ocean, northern and southern. The content of the maps differs from those previously compiled not only in their completeness, but also in the more rigorous scientific selection and processing of geographical data and all cartographic material accumulated by the beginning of the second quarter of the 19th century. across the Pacific Ocean. They reflect numerous new discoveries and, in particular, discoveries that took place during Russian voyages around the world, including the discoveries of Bellingshausen and Lazarev. Private maps and plans (mainly of individual archipelagos or islands) are of great interest, since they indicated depth measurements, reefs and shoals, compass declinations and anchorages. This work of Krusenstern, together with three-volume hydrographic descriptions, was highly appreciated by sailors from all over the world and for many years served them as a guide when sailing in the Pacific Ocean. The author of the work was awarded the full Demidov Prize from the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences out of competition. Academicians K. M. Baer, F. P. Litke, A. Ya. Kupfer and others, evaluating the “Atlas of the South Sea”, noted the high scientific and practical value of Krusenstern’s “Atlas”, its superiority over the maps of the English hydrographs Arrosmith and Nori. F.P. Wrangel wrote that Kruzenshtern used materials that foreigners did not know, and brought it to a degree of perfection that could not be achieved in other states. Experienced English captain R. Fitz-Roy, who led an expedition around the world in 1831 -1836. on the ships "Adventure" and "Beagle", indicated that during his voyage, Krusenstern's maps and notes were his only guidance.
G. A. Sarychev’s work “Atlas of the northern part of the Eastern Ocean” (St. Petersburg, 1826) included 26 maps and plans, as well as 7 profiles with views of the coasts of Asia and North America (Fig. 15). The general map - “Mercator Map of the Eastern Ocean and Part of the Arctic Sea” - covered the space between 5-80 ° N. w. and 75-254° E. d. (from St. Petersburg). Most of the regional maps depicted individual areas of the coasts of the Pacific and Arctic oceans, as well as islands. Sarychei reflected on the general map the new discoveries of Russian navigators and included in the Atlas individual maps of areas compiled as a result of various expeditions. Thus, the “Atlas” includes the “Map of St. Lawrence” (Kotzebue), “Map of North-West America” (Hagemeister), maps of the islands of Atha (Vasilieva), Attu (Golovnin), etc.
The atlases of I.F. Kruzenshtern and G.A. Sarychev were the first detailed Russian atlases of the Pacific Ocean, covering all its water areas in the north, south, west and east (Fig. 16). Later, other atlases appeared, for example, “Atlas of the Eastern Ocean...”. A. F. Katnevarova (1850), “Atlas of the northwestern coasts of America...” M. D. Tebenkova (1852).
The contribution of Russian scientists is significant, which was facilitated by the diversity of nature of our vast country. They established the most important patterns of formation of the geological structure of the earth's crust and put forward the doctrine of natural zones and the diverse physical and geographical processes that shape the natural environment and its natural resources. The works of A.P. Karpinsky, I.V. Mushketov, V.A. Obruchev, A.P. Pavlov, F.N. Chernyshev, I.D. Chersky and others played a particularly important role in the development of geological science. P. A. Kropotkin, based on his observations in Siberia, developed a scientific theory about the ancient ice age in the history of the Earth. In the field of meteorology, the works of A.I. Voeikov, who revealed the essence of many climatic processes and substantiated the possibilities of artificial influence on the climate, became world famous. In the development of Russian physical geography, P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky played a particularly important role, under whose leadership a complete geographical description of our country called “Russia” was first compiled; D. N. Anuchin, who developed Russian geosciences, and V. V. Dokuchaev, the founder of modern soil science and the doctrine of natural zones. The names of outstanding Russian botanists V.L. Komarov, G.I. Tanfilyev and zoologist N.A. Severtsov are inextricably linked with the creation of scientific schools in the biological departments of Earth sciences. Finally, a huge general contribution to the development of oceanography was made by the famous Russian navigators I. F. Kruzenshtern, F. F. Belingshausen, M. P. Lazarev, F. P. Litke and other major oceanographers S. O. Makarov, Yu. M. Shokalsky.
It should be noted that advanced Russian scientists had unusually broad scientific views. Developing a specific field of science, studying their object of research, they always linked them with the general ideas of contemporary natural science, with phenomena and processes that link together the entire nature of the Earth as a whole.
The progressive foundations of earth sciences, created by Russian scientists, received especially fruitful development after the Great October Socialist Revolution.
The socialist reconstruction of the national economy in our country, the creation of new industrial areas and the radical modernization of old ones, the expansion and increase in agricultural productivity and the development of literally all sectors of the economy required the immediate identification and use of new natural resources, and in increasing quantities. For this it was necessary to develop modern earth sciences; they began to grow especially rapidly as the economic power of the world's first country of victorious socialism strengthened.
It is characteristic that in tsarist Russia there was not a single large research institute in the field of earth sciences: the study of nature was carried out mainly by scientific societies, museums, and university teachers. There was no unified hydrometeorological network. Therefore, from the very first days of the establishment of Soviet power, at the direction of V.I. Lenin, a whole system of scientific institutions was taking shape in our country - the Academy of Sciences, the Supreme Council of the National Economy (VSNKh), the People's Commissariat of Education and a number of production people's commissariats. At the same time, the foundations of a future network of institutions of geosciences were laid not only in Moscow and Petrograd, but also on the periphery, in the former outskirts of tsarist Russia, which became union republics. In addition, in order to quickly and uninterruptedly meet the needs of the growing national economy for mineral raw materials and all other types of natural resources, a special system of state scientific and production services is being created. The cartographic service provided a high modern degree of topographic and geodetic knowledge of our Motherland, the compilation and publication of excellent geographical maps and atlases. The Geological Survey has conducted and continues geological surveying, exploration and discovery of a large number of major deposits of various types of minerals. The Hydrometeorological Service organized a massive network of observation stations, which accumulated enormous information on climatic and water resources over a vast territory of the country, which made it possible to carry out meteorological and hydrological forecasts. Land and forest management services have done a lot of work to study land funds, natural food and forest resources, terrestrial and aquatic fauna, and contributed to the organization of their protection and rational use.
A wide range of research carried out during the years of Soviet power created favorable conditions for the development of geosciences, which contributed to the formation of a number of research areas that have taken a leading position in world science.
Thus, in the field of geology, in the works of A. D. Arkhangelsky, D. V. Nalivkin, N. S. Shatsky, N. M. Strakhov and others, new historical-geological and structural-tectonic directions were developed, based on the doctrine of the main stages geological history of the Earth, the system of modern concepts was clarified; in the works of V. I. Vernadsky, A. E. Fersman, A. N. Zavaritsky, A. P. Vinogradov and other outstanding Soviet scientists, new principles and methods were developed for studying the material composition of the Earth and its shells, as well as the conditions for the formation of various rocks breeds A large galaxy of Soviet geologists - A. N. Zavaritsky, S. S. Smirnov, I. M. Gubkin, D. I. Shcherbakov and others - developed a theory of the formation of various minerals and put forward brilliantly proven scientific forecasts for the search for deposits of various ores, coal, oil, gas Druyanov V.A. Mysterious biography of the Earth. - M., 1991.
Geography now is a complex system of scientific disciplines that study nature, economies, the population of one’s country and the whole world. Along with the identification and study of various types of natural resources, the responsibility for the most effective economic development and geographical distribution of productive forces in various regions of the country fell to the share of Soviet geographical science. Recently, much attention of geographers has been attracted to the scientific development of plans for the purposeful transformation of nature with the help of large-scale hydraulic engineering, inter-basin transfer of river water, extensive land reclamation - irrigation, watering, drainage, protective forest plantations, etc. Research on problems of the population, the development of cities, settlements, transport routes, etc. The term constructive research is now applied to all these works, which emphasizes that geography, in addition to educational and cognitive purposes, is actively involved in solving the most important problems of national economic development.
The achievements of the general theory of Soviet geography are largely due to L. S. Berg, who laid the foundations of landscape science, A. A. Grigoriev, who developed the doctrine of the role of the balance of heat and moisture in natural processes, and N. N. Baransky, who developed the scientific foundations of economic geography.
Within the general framework of geographical sciences, geomorphology, the science of the relief of the earth's surface formed as a result of the interaction of internal and external forces, developed very successfully (Ya. S. Edelshtein, A. A. Borzov, etc.); glaciology - the science of glaciers, their formation and movement; permafrost science - the study of underground ice, frozen soils and rocks (M. I. Sumgin and others); climatology, especially in the study of radiation balance as the main climate-forming factor, the movement and interaction of air masses, moisture circulation, moisture transfer and microclimate; hydrology, which has done a lot in the study of surface and river flow, water balance of the territory (V. G. Glushkov and others); soil science, which continued the study of genetic types of soils and soil cover structures (K. D. Glinka, S. S. Neustruev, L. I. Prasovlov, B. B. Polynov, etc.); geobotany and zoogeography both in the study of the geography of plants and animals, and in the development of the doctrine of biogeocenoses, their dynamics, biological productivity (V.N. Sukachev and others).
The science of oceanology has developed independently. In addition to remarkable geographical research in the Arctic basin (P.P. Shirshov, V.Yu. Wiese, N.N. Zubov, etc.), and in recent years, in connection with international work in the Antarctic, numerous ocean raids have played a huge role in this regard research ships "Vityaz" and others, which opened new horizons in oceanology.
In addition to completely new ideas about physical phenomena in the ocean, the most interesting discoveries were made in hydrobiology (L.A. Zenkevich and others), as well as in the structure of the ocean floor and the composition of bottom sediments. For example, entire systems of underwater sea ridges and depressions have been discovered in the ocean. There is no doubt that many new things await us in this area of Earth sciences. Bogoslovsky B.B., Samokhin A.A., Ivanov K.E., Sokolov D.P. General hydrology. - L., 1984. - 356 pp.
On August 18, we celebrate the birthday of the Russian Geographical Society - one of the oldest Russian public organizations, and the only one that has existed continuously since its creation in 1845.
Just think about it: neither wars, nor revolutions, nor periods of devastation, timelessness, or the collapse of the country stopped its existence! There have always been daredevils, scientists, crazy researchers who, both in prosperous and in the most difficult times, took any risk for the sake of science. And even now, at the moment, new full members of the Russian Geographical Society are on their way. "WORLD 24" tells only about some of the great travelers who glorified the Russian Geographical Society.
Ivan Krusenstern (1770 – 1846)
Photo: unknown artist, 1838.
Russian navigator, admiral, one of the initiators of the creation of the Russian Geographical Society. He led the first Russian round-the-world expedition.
Even in his youth, fellow students in the Naval Cadet Corps noted the unbending, “maritime” character of the future Russian admiral. His faithful comrade-in-arms, friend and rival Yuri Lisyansky, who became the commander of the second ship in their legendary circumnavigation, noted that the main qualities of cadet Kruzenshtern were “reliability, commitment and lack of interest in everyday life.”
It was then, during his years of study, that his dreams of exploring distant lands and oceans were born. However, they did not come true soon, only in 1803. The first Russian round-the-world expedition included the ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva”.
During this expedition, a new route was established to Russian possessions in Kamchatka and Alaska. The western coast of Japan, the southern and eastern parts of Sakhalin were mapped, and part of the Kuril ridge was comprehensively studied.
Photo: “I. F. Kruzenshtern in Avacha Bay”, Friedrich Georg Veitch, 1806
During his trip around the world, measurements of current speeds, temperatures at different depths, determination of salinity and specific gravity of water, and much more were carried out. Thus, Ivan Kruzenshtern became one of the founders of Russian oceanology.
Peter Semenov-Tien-Shansky (1827 – 1914)
Photo: Alexandre Quinet, 1870
Vice-chairman of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society and its leading scientist - but not an armchair one. He was a brave and persistent pioneer. He explored Altai, Tarbagatai, Semirechensky and Zailiysky Alatau, Lake Issyk-Kul. Only climbers will be able to appreciate the path that the brave traveler took through the inaccessible mountains of the Central Tien Shan, where Europeans had not yet been able to reach. He discovered and for the first time conquered the peak of Khan Tengri with glaciers on its slopes and proved that the opinion of the international scientific world that a range of volcanoes erupts in these places is wrong. The scientist also found out where the Naryn, Saryjaz and Chu rivers take their sources, and penetrated into the previously untrodden upper reaches of the Syr Darya.
Semenov-Tien-Shansky became the actual creator of the new Russian geographical school, offering the international scientific world a fundamentally new way of knowledge. Being at the same time a geologist, botanist and zoologist, he first began to consider natural systems in their unity. And he compared the geological structure of the mountains with the mountainous relief and identified patterns on which the entire scientific world later began to rely.
Nikolai Miklouho-Maclay (1846-1888)
Photo: ITAR-TASS, 1963.
The famous Russian traveler, anthropologist, explorer, who made a number of expeditions to the previously unexplored New Guinea and other islands of the Pacific Ocean. Accompanied by only two servants, he lived among the Papuans for a long time, collected rich materials about primitive peoples, made friends with them, and helped them.
Here is what his biographers write about the scientist: “The most characteristic thing about Miklouho-Maclay is a striking combination of traits of a brave traveler, a tireless researcher-enthusiast, a widely erudite scientist, a progressive thinker-humanist, an energetic public figure, a fighter for the rights of oppressed colonial peoples. Such qualities individually are not particularly rare, but the combination of all of them in one person is a completely exceptional phenomenon.”In his travels, Miklouho-Maclay also collected a lot of data about the peoples of Indonesia and Malaya, the Philippines, Australia, Melanesia, Micronesia and western Polynesia. He was ahead of his time. His works were not sufficiently appreciated in the 19th century, but anthropological researchers of the 20th and 21st centuries consider his contribution to science to be a real scientific feat.
Nikolai Przhevalsky (1839-1888)
Photo: ITAR-TASS, 1948.
Russian military leader, major general, one of the greatest Russian geographers and travelers, who consciously prepared himself for travel from his high school days.
Przhevalsky devoted 11 years of his life to long expeditions. First, he led a two-year expedition to the Ussuri region (1867-1869), and after that, in 1870 - 1885, he made four trips to little-known regions of Central Asia.
The first expedition to the Central Asian region was devoted to the exploration of Mongolia, China and Tibet. Przhevalsky collected scientific evidence that the Gobi is not a plateau, and the Nanshan Mountains are not a ridge, but a mountain system. The researcher is responsible for the discovery of a whole series of mountains, ridges, and lakes.
On the second expedition, the scientist discovered new Altyntag mountains, and for the first time described two rivers and a lake. And thanks to his research, the border of the Tibet plateau had to be moved more than 300 km to the north on maps.
In the third expedition, Przhevalsky identified several ridges in Nanshan, Kunlun and Tibet, described Lake Kukunor, as well as the upper reaches of the great rivers of China, the Yellow River and the Yangtze. Despite his illness, the discoverer organized a fourth expedition to Tibet in 1883-1885, during which he discovered a number of new lakes and ridges.
He described more than 30 thousand kilometers of the path he had traveled and collected unique collections. He discovered not only mountains and rivers, but also hitherto unknown representatives of the animal world: a wild camel, a Tibetan bear, a wild horse.
Like many outstanding geographers of that time, Przhevalsky was the owner of a good and lively literary language. He wrote several books about his travels, in which he gave a vivid description of Asia: its flora, fauna, climate and the peoples inhabiting it.
Sergei Prokudin-Gorsky (1863-1944)
Photo: Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky, 1912.
The founder of the era of color photography in Russia. He was the first to capture in color nature, cities and people’s lives over a vast stretch from the Baltic Sea to the East of Russia.
He created a color rendering system for photography: from the recipe for the emulsion that is applied to glass plates for photography, to the drawings of special equipment for color photography and the projection of the resulting color images.
Since 1903, he has been continuously traveling: with the obsession of a true traveler, he photographs the natural beauties of Russia, its inhabitants, cities, architectural monuments - all the true sights of the Russian Empire.
In December 1906-January 1907, with the expedition of the Russian Geographical Society, Prokudin-Gorsky traveled to Turkestan to photograph a solar eclipse. It was not possible to capture the eclipse in color, but the ancient monuments of Bukhara and Samarkand, colorful local types of people and much more were photographed.
In the fall of 1908, Nicholas II himself provided Prokudin-Gorsky with the necessary means of transport and gave permission to shoot in any place, so that the photographer could capture “in natural colors” all the main attractions of the Russian Empire from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean. In total, it is planned to take 10 thousand photographs over 10 years.
Just a few days after meeting the Tsar, the photographer sets off along the Mariinsky Waterway from St. Petersburg almost to the Volga. For three and a half years he has been continuously moving and photographing. First he takes photographs of the northern part of the industrial Urals. Then he makes two trips along the Volga, capturing it from its very sources to Nizhny Novgorod. In between, he films the southern part of the Urals. And then - numerous ancient monuments in Kostroma and the Yaroslavl province. In the spring and autumn of 1911, the photographer managed to visit the Trans-Caspian region and Turkestan twice more, where he tried color filming for the first time in history.
Then follow two photo expeditions to the Caucasus, where he photographs the Mugan steppe, takes a grand trip along the planned Kama-Tobolsk waterway, conducts extensive photography of areas associated with the memory of the Patriotic War of 1812 - from Maloyaroslavets to Lithuanian Vilna, photographs Ryazan, Suzdal, construction of the Kuzminskaya and Beloomutovskaya dams on the Oka River.
Then financial difficulties begin and funding for expeditions is interrupted. In 1913-1914 Prokudin-Gorsky is creating the first color cinema. But the further development of this new project was prevented by the First World War. None of Prokudin-Gorsky's experimental color films have yet been found.
Artur Chilingarov (born in 1939)
Photo: Fedoseev Lev/ITAR-TASS
Famous polar explorer, Hero of the Soviet Union, Hero of the Russian Federation, prominent Russian scientist, author of a number of scientific works on the problems of development of the North and the Arctic. Lives and works in Moscow.
Since 1963, he has been studying the Arctic Ocean and the oceanic atmosphere at the Arctic Research Observatory in the village of Tiksi. In 1969, he headed the North Pole-19 station, created on drifting ice, from 1971 he worked as the head of the Bellingshausen station, and since 1973 - the head of the North Pole-22 station. In 1985, he led the operation to rescue the expedition vessel Mikhail Somov, which was buried in Antarctic ice. The icebreaker Vladivostok broke the ice around the diesel-electric ship and freed its crew from the blockade, which lasted as long as 133 days.
In 1987, Chilingarov led the crew of the nuclear icebreaker Sibir, which reached the geographic North Pole in free sailing. In January 2002, the traveler proved the possibility of operating light aviation in Antarctica: he reached the South Pole on a single-engine An-ZT aircraft.
Photo: Denisov Roman/ITAR-TASS
In the summer of 2007, the famous polar explorer led an Arctic expedition on the ship Akademik Fedorov, which proved that the Arctic Ocean shelf is a continuation of the Siberian continental platform. The Mir-1 and Mir-2 spacecraft were sank to the bottom of the ocean, with Chilingarov himself on board one of them. He also set a unique record as the first person in the world to visit both the South and North Poles within six months.
Nikolay Litau (born 1955)
Photo: from the archive
Honored Master of Sports, Russian yachtsman, who made three trips around the world on the yacht “Apostle Andrey” built under his leadership. Awarded the Order of Courage. During three trips around the world, “Apostle Andrey” left 110 thousand nautical miles astern, visited all the continents of the planet, passed all the oceans and set five world records.
This is what Nikolai Litau told the MIR 24 correspondent: “On the Apostle Andrew I made three circumnavigations. The first - around the Eastern Hemisphere through the Northern Sea Route, the second - around the Western Hemisphere, through the straits of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and the third - the Antarctic: in 2005-06 we circled Antarctica, being all the time above 60 degrees latitude, the invisible border of Antarctica. No one has yet repeated the latter. The fourth global voyage in which I had the opportunity to take part took place in 2012-13. It was an international trip around the world, its route passed mainly through warm and comfortable tropical latitudes. I was a captain-mentor on the Russian yacht Royal Leopard and completed half the distance. During this voyage, I crossed my anniversary - the tenth equator. In recent years, we have been engaged in memorial trips on the yacht “Apostle Andrey” in the Russian Arctic. We remember the names of outstanding Russian sailors: Vladimir Rusanov, Georgy Sedov, Boris Vilkitsky, Georgy Brusilov and others.”
Photo: from the archive
Exactly a year ago, Nikolai Litau traveled to the Arctic for the eleventh time on the yacht “Apostol Andrey”. The route of this trip passed through the White, Barents and Kara Seas; the islands of the Arctic Institute in the Kara Sea were explored. New expeditions are ahead.
A series of 12 postal stamped cards dedicated to the famous awards of the Russian Geographical Society has been published. Since the foundation of the Society, its medals have been awarded for outstanding achievements in the field of geography.
Thus, one of the most honorable awards of the Russian Geographical Society is the Konstantinov Medal. The first postcard in the series is dedicated to her. The founder of the award in 1846 was the chairman of the IRGO, Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich. The conditions for its award were that the nominee perform a geographical feat involving great difficulty or danger, as well as conduct research aimed at solving primary government problems.
Over the years, the winners of the Konstantinov Medal were the head of the first major expedition of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society to the Northern Urals, Ernst Hoffmann, Nikolai Przhevalsky for scientific research and geographical discoveries and travel to Mongolia and the country of the Tanguts, Pyotr Kozlov for the Tibetan expedition in 1899–1901, Vladimir Obruchev for his works on the geology of Asia, Fridtjof Nansen for the feat he accomplished, which constituted an era in the exploration of the Arctic Ocean, and other outstanding scientists.
Two cards are dedicated to the Great Gold Medal for scientific works and the Great Silver Medal. A large gold medal for scientific work is awarded for an important geographical feat, the accomplishment of which is fraught with difficulty and danger, including scientific expeditions in Russia and other countries, if their results have become widely known and contain new and important information. A large silver medal is awarded for achievements in the field of geographical sciences, for activities in organizing expeditions, research and travel, as well as for significant contributions to the development of the Society.
The series also includes postcards with images of the Small Gold and Small Silver medals. A small gold medal is awarded for independent scientific work in one of the areas of the Society’s activities, which includes the systematization of the results of research done on any subject. Small silver medal - for selfless assistance in the activities of the Society, contributing to the preservation and enhancement of the glorious traditions of the Russian Geographical Society, strengthening its scientific, organizational and financial and economic condition.
In addition, seven cards are dedicated to medals bearing the names of famous Russian geographers. This is the Gold Medal named after F.P. Litke, Gold Medal named after P.P. Semenov, Gold Medal named after N.M. Przhevalsky, Gold Medal named after I.P. Borodin, Gold Medal named after A.F. Treshnikov, Gold Medal named after N.N. Miklouho-Maclay and the Gold Medal named after Yu.A. Senkevich.
Let us remind you that the publication of “geographical” postage signs, which include cards, envelopes and stamps, is carried out within the framework of a cooperation agreement between the Russian Geographical Society and the Federal Communications Agency.
Cards can be purchased at Russian Post branches, as well as at the branch of the Marka Joint Stock Company - the Collector salon.