France during the reign of Napoleon. Napoleonic France and Europe Napoleonic Wars and their significance in the history of France

21.02.2024

COURSE WORK

in the course “History of State and Law of Foreign Countries”

on the topic: “France during the reign of Napoleon”

INTRODUCTION

When studying the foreign history of state and law, the legal history of France is of particular interest. The legal development of France is characterized by extreme instability of state power. Unlike England, where contradictions as they arose were resolved through peaceful agreements and concessions, in France these contradictions result in revolutions and armed coups, which lead to radical changes in the forms of government. The reason for this instability is the heterogeneity of social classes participating in the political struggle.

The work is devoted to the study of the political system of France during the reign of Napoleon Bonaparte. The political system of that period was called “Bonapartism.” This term is also used in modern political life, which determines the relevance of this work.

1. EVOLUTION OF THE FRENCH STATE FROM THE REPUBLIC TO THE CONSULATE AND THE EMPIRE

The beginning of the Great French Revolution is considered to be July 14, 1789. On this day, Parisians stormed the royal fortress-prison Bastille. Political power passed into the hands of the big bourgeoisie and the liberal nobility. The legislative initiative was given to the Constituent Assembly.

On August 11, 1789, the first decree of the revolution “On the destruction of feudal rights and privileges” was adopted. He abolished serfdom (servage) and “personal duties” of peasants (foot and horse corvee, slaughter tax, castle guard tax, road taxes, fair fees, etc.). The most important feudal duties (shamnar, corvee, census, etc.) had to be redeemed by the peasantry for a huge sum. The nobility retained land and land taxes. The purchase of land by peasants was provided for on the terms of a one-time payment of 30 times the annual contribution, which was available only to a small number of village rich people.

A number of decrees and regulations of government officials issued during 1789–1792. Internal duties on the transportation of goods, the guild system, all kinds of feudal restrictions on industry and trade, and finally, the hated salt tax - gabel (1790) were abolished. In August 1789, the Constituent Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, the program document of the revolution.

This declaration in a clear generalized form expressed the political and legal views of the enlighteners, encyclopedists: Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, Holbach, etc. But its content was especially influenced by the political views of C. Montesquieu, his work “On the Spirit of Laws.”

The Declaration proclaimed the principles of a democratic state and legal system. The interconnection of these principles was established: human rights were declared fundamental, their enforcement was entrusted to a democratically organized state (“state union”), based on the principles of popular sovereignty and separation of powers. This construction followed the idea of the natural law school, which saw the main goal of the state in protecting “inalienable” human rights. The influence of natural law theories is also felt in the Declaration’s distinction between human rights, which are inherent to him by nature as “natural and inalienable” and the rights received by a citizen from the state. The following were proclaimed as “natural and inalienable” rights: freedom, property, security, resistance to oppression (Article 2).

Freedom consists of the ability to do anything that does not harm another. The law can only prohibit actions that are harmful to society. “Whatever is not prohibited by the law is permitted” (vv. 4-5).

It was proclaimed that the law must express the will of all members of society, and therefore everyone can participate in its creation personally or through deputies. All citizens are equal before the law: everyone has access to government positions (Article 6).

a) no one can be held accountable except in cases expressly provided for by law;

b) no one can be punished otherwise than is directly and directly provided by law.

Article 9 formulated the “presumption of innocence”. It was based on the old principle of procedural law, known since ancient times: doubt is interpreted in favor of the accused.

Establishing guilt was recognized as a function of the court: it was confirmed by a guilty verdict that entered into legal force. It follows from the rule of presumption of innocence that the burden of proving guilt lies with the accuser. The Declaration proclaimed freedom of opinion, thought, speech and press; the rights of citizens to participate in determining taxes and to demand reports from officials (Articles 10-11, 14-15).

Article 17 declared the right of property inviolable and sacred. Equal protection of the property of rich and poor, capitalist and worker was assumed. The Constitution of 1791 was also drafted by the Constituent Assembly. According to it, a constitutional monarchy was established in the country. The unicameral National Assembly became the highest legislative body. It could not be dissolved by the king. The Constitution endowed members of the Assembly with the right of immunity: the consent of the National Assembly was required to prosecute them for ordinary crimes. Each deputy was declared a representative of the entire nation, and not of the individual group of the population that elected him. This leads to an important provision that is now typical of any constitution: the deputy is not responsible to the voters and is independent of them. The exclusive powers of the People's Assembly were declared:

· drawing up and approving the budget;

· resolving issues of war and peace;

· determination of the size and maintenance of the army;

· ratification of treaties with foreign states;

· establishment and abolition of government positions;

· bringing ministers and other officials to criminal liability before the Supreme Court; legislative activity.

The basic principles of legislative procedure were established: a bill adopted by the National Assembly was subject to approval by the king; the king was given the right of suspensive veto. If the bill rejected by the monarch was again adopted by the next two new compositions of the Assembly, it acquired the force of law.

Executive power was vested in the king. He was entrusted with the appointment and dismissal of ministers. The king headed the armed forces, appointed part of the command staff, approved the appointment of senior officials, and exercised general management of internal administration and foreign relations. The King could only act within the framework of laws passed by the Assembly. A countersignature was introduced - the king’s orders acquired legal force only after they were signed by the relevant minister, who was responsible for the decision made. Members of the National Assembly were to be elected through two-stage elections in which only active citizens could participate. They were recognized as citizens over 25 years of age, whose income, depending on their place of residence, ranged from 100 to 200 working days, or the value of the property they hired or rented was not less than the value of 400 working days. The Constitution established a new administrative division of the country into departments, districts and communes. Local administration was entrusted to elected bodies, which acted under the leadership and control of the relevant ministers. Judicial power was vested in judges elected for a term. A jury was established to consider criminal cases. A cassation court was also created. The formation of a Supreme Court was envisaged, designed to deal with the offenses of ministers and crimes threatening the security of the state. In 1792, the foreign policy situation began to have a noticeable influence on the political struggle in France. An anti-French military coalition of the largest European monarchies took shape. The royal court found itself at the center of a monarchist conspiracy and pushed the country towards war. At this time, the importance of the Paris Commune, the self-government body of the capital, increased. It consisted of representatives of sections (administrative units) of Paris. Each section sent three elected deputies to the Commune. On August 10, 1792, the Parisians, led by the Commune, rose up in armed uprising. Louis XVI was arrested. The Constitution of 1791 became invalid. The National Convention was declared the highest authority, which was to be elected on the basis of the new suffrage. The electors could be all Frenchmen over 21 years of age, living in a given area for one year, having income or earnings and not being in personal service. The government, consisting of the king's ministers, was removed. In its place, a Provisional Executive Council was established, consisting mainly of Girondins. However, the Girondin government did not solve the most important issue of the revolution - the complete elimination of feudal relations in the countryside. Peasant uprisings did not subside. The food problem has worsened. In March 1793, a royalist rebellion broke out in the Vendée. The position of the Girondins became critical. On June 2, 1793, the Girondist government was overthrown by the Jacobins, led by the rebel committee of the Paris Commune. On June 3, 1793, the Jacobin Convention adopted a law on the preferential sale to peasants of lands confiscated from the king, royalist nobles and the church. The law of June 17, 1793 abolished all feudal land rights and payments free of charge. The liberation of peasants from feudal duties, the sale of national land funds, and the division of communal lands led to the emergence in the countryside of a large class of small landowners who formed the stronghold of the new bourgeois system in France. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1793 reproduced the main provisions of the Declaration of 1789, but differed from it in greater democracy, a more radical approach to the problem of political freedoms and rights, in the spirit of Rousseau.

The short biography of Napoleon Bonaparte for children and adults presented in this article will certainly interest you. This name has long become a household name, not only because of his talent and intelligence, but also because of his incredible ambitions, as well as the dizzying career that he managed to make.

The biography of Napoleon Bonaparte is marked by the rapid rise of his military career. Having entered service at the age of 16, he became a general at the age of 24. And Napoleon Bonaparte became emperor at the age of 34. Interesting facts from the biography of the French commander are numerous. Among his skills and characteristics there were some very extraordinary ones. They say that he read at an incredible speed - about 2 thousand words per minute. In addition, the French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte could sleep for a long time, 2-3 hours a day. Interesting facts from the biography of this man, we hope, have awakened your interest in his personality.

Events in Corsica leading up to the birth of Napoleon

Napoleon Bonaparte, the French emperor, was born on August 15, 1769. He was born on the island of Corsica, in the city of Ajaccio. The biography of Napoleon Bonaparte would probably have turned out differently if the political situation of that time had been different. His native island had long been in the possession of the Genoese Republic, but Corsica overthrew Genoese rule in 1755. After this, for several years it was an independent state, ruled by Pasquale Paole, a local landowner. Carlo Buonaparte (his portrait is presented below), Napoleon's father, served as his secretary.

In 1768 she sold the rights to Corsica to France. A year later, after the local rebels were defeated by French troops, Pasquale Paole moved to England. Napoleon himself was not a direct participant in these events or even a witness to them, since he was born only 3 months later. However, Paole's personality played a large role in shaping his character. For many 20 years, this man became the idol of such a French commander as Napoleon Bonaparte. The biography for children and adults of Bonaparte, presented in this article, continues with a story about his origin.

Origin of Napoleon

Letizia Ramalino and Carlo Buonaparte, the parents of the future emperor, were minor nobles. There were 13 children in the family, of whom Napoleon was the second oldest. True, five of his sisters and brothers died in childhood.

The father of the family was one of the ardent supporters of Corsica's independence. He participated in the drafting of the Corsican Constitution. But in order for his children to receive an education, he began to show loyalty to the French. After some time, Carlo Buonaparte even became a representative of the nobility of Corsica in the French Parliament.

Study in Ajaccio

It is known that Napoleon, as well as his sisters and brothers, received their primary education at the city school of Ajaccio. After this, the future emperor began to study mathematics and writing from the local abbot. Carlo Buonaparte, as a result of interaction with the French, managed to obtain royal scholarships for Napoleon and Joseph, his elder brother. Joseph was to pursue a career as a priest, and Napoleon was to become a military man.

Cadet school

The biography of Napoleon Bonaparte continues in Autun. It was here that the brothers went in 1778 to study French. A year later, Napoleon entered the cadet school located in Brienne. He was an excellent student and showed special talent in mathematics. In addition, Napoleon loved to read books on various topics - philosophy, history, geography. The favorite historical characters of the future emperor were Julius Caesar and Alexander the Great. However, at this time Napoleon did not have many friends. Both his Corsican origin and accent (Napoleon never managed to get rid of it), as well as his tendency to loneliness and his complex character played a role in this.

Father's death

He later continued his studies at the Royal Cadet School. Napoleon graduated early in 1785. Then his father died, and he had to take his place as head of the family. The older brother was not suitable for this role, since he did not have leadership abilities like Napoleon.

Military career

Napoleon Bonaparte began his military career in Valence. The biography, a brief summary of which is the topic of this article, continues in this city, located in the center of the Rhone Lowland. Here Napoleon served as a lieutenant. After some time he was transferred to Oxonne. The future emperor read a lot at this time, and also tried himself in the literary field.

The military biography of Napoleon Bonaparte, one might say, gained great momentum in the decade that followed his graduation from cadet school. In just 10 years, the future emperor managed to go through the entire hierarchy of ranks in the French army of that time. In 1788, the future emperor tried to enlist in the Russian army, but he was refused.

Napoleon met the French Revolution in Corsica, where he was on vacation. He accepted and supported her. Moreover, Napoleon was noted as an excellent commander during his time as a brigadier general and later commander of the Italian Army.

Marriage to Josephine

An important event in Napoleon's personal life took place in 1796. It was then that he married the widow of the Count, Josephine Beauharnais.

The beginning of the Napoleonic Wars

Napoleon Bonaparte, whose full biography is presented in an impressive volume of books, was recognized as the best French commander after inflicting a crushing defeat on the enemy in Sardinia and Austria. It was then that he rose to a new level, starting the “Napoleonic Wars.” They lasted almost 20 years, and it was thanks to them that the biography of such a commander as Napoleon Bonaparte became known throughout the world. A brief summary of the further path to world fame traveled by him is as follows.

The French Directory was unable to maintain the achievements that the revolution brought. This became obvious in 1799. Napoleon and his army were in Egypt at that time. After his return, he dispersed the Directory thanks to the support of the people. On November 19, 1799, Bonaparte proclaimed the consular regime, and 5 years later, in 1804, he declared himself emperor.

Napoleon's domestic policy

Napoleon Bonaparte, whose biography by this time was already marked by many achievements, decided to focus on strengthening his own power, which was supposed to serve as a guarantee of the civil rights of the French population. In 1804, the Napoleonic Code, a code of civil rights, was adopted for this purpose. In addition, tax reform was implemented, and the French Bank, owned by the state, was created. The French education system was created precisely under Napoleon. Catholicism was recognized as the religion of the majority of the population, but freedom of religion was not abolished.

Economic blockade of England

England was the main opponent of French industry and capital in the European market. This country financed military actions against it on the continent. England attracted major European powers such as Austria and Russia to its side. Thanks to a series of French military operations carried out against Russia, Austria and Prussia, Napoleon was able to annex to his country lands that previously belonged to Holland, Belgium, Italy and Northern Germany. The defeated countries had no choice but to make peace with France. Napoleon declared an economic blockade of England. He banned trade relations with this country. However, this measure also hit the French economy. France was unable to replace British products on the European market. Napoleon Bonaparte was unable to foresee this. A short biography in abbreviation should not dwell on this in detail, so we will continue our story.

Decline in authority, birth of an heir

The economic crisis and protracted wars led to a decline in the authority of Napoleon Bonaparte among the French, who had previously supported him. In addition, it turned out that no one was threatening France, and Bonaparte’s ambitions were driven only by concern for the state of his dynasty. In order to leave an heir, he divorced Josephine because she could not give him a child. In 1810, Napoleon married Marie Louise, daughter of the Emperor of Austria. In 1811, the long-awaited heir was born. However, the public did not approve of marriage with a woman from the Austrian royal family.

War with Russia and exile to the Elbe

In 1812, Napoleon Bonaparte decided to start a war with Russia, whose short biography, largely due to this, is of interest to many of our compatriots. Like other states, Russia at one time supported the blockade of England, but did not strive to comply with it. This step became fatal for Napoleon. Having suffered defeat, he abdicated the throne. The former French emperor was sent to the island of Elba, located in the Mediterranean Sea.

Napoleon's revenge and final defeat

After Bonaparte's abdication, representatives of the Bourbon dynasty returned to France, as well as their heirs, who sought to regain their position and fortune. This caused discontent among the population. Napoleon fled from Elba on February 25, 1815. He returned to France in triumph. One article can only present a very brief biography of Napoleon Bonaparte. Therefore, let's just say that he resumed the war, but France could no longer bear this burden. Napoleon was finally defeated at Waterloo, after 100 days of revenge. This time he was sent into exile on the island of St. Helena, which was much further away than before, so it was more difficult to escape from it. Here the former emperor spent the last 6 years of his life. He never saw his wife and son again.

Death of the Former Emperor

Bonaparte's health began to rapidly deteriorate. He died on May 5, 1821, presumably from cancer. According to another version, Napoleon was poisoned. A very popular belief is that the former emperor was given arsenic. But was it poisoned? The fact is that Napoleon was afraid of this and voluntarily took small doses of arsenic, thus trying to develop immunity to it. Of course, such a procedure would certainly end tragically. Be that as it may, even today it is impossible to say with complete certainty why Napoleon Bonaparte died. His short biography, presented in this article, ends here.

It should be added that he was buried first on the island of St. Helena, but in 1840 his remains were reburied in Paris, in the Invalides. The monument at the grave of the former emperor is made of Karelian porphyry, which was given to the French government by Nicholas I, the Russian emperor.

ABSTRACT

on the topic of:

"PNapoleon's reignBonaparte. The first empire in France"

1. Organization of the power of the consulate. Concordat.

The new political regime established in France in 1799 was directed simultaneously against democratic changes in the country and against royalist attempts to restore an absolute monarchy. Its support was large property owners, the “new bourgeoisie” - entrepreneurs and financiers. At the end of 1799, a new Constitution was adopted, which guaranteed the property rights of new owners and declared the alienation of emigrants' estates irrevocable. In France, the republican form of government was maintained. The government, consisting of three consuls, was subject to re-election after a ten-year term. But in fact, power passed into the hands of the first consul - Napoleon Bonaparte, and the other two consuls had only an advisory voice.

The First Consul concentrated in his hands the command of the army, appointment to senior military and civilian positions, and management of all domestic and foreign policy. Legislative power was transferred to the State Council, the Tribunate and the Legislative Corps. Local self-government was destroyed. Since 1800, prefects - proteges of the first consul - were placed at the head of the departments. Mayors of cities and rural communities were appointed as ordinary officials.

In 1802, a plebiscite was held, which assigned Napoleon Bonaparte the post of first consul for life, gave him the right to approve peace treaties and appoint a successor.

The new government sought support from the church. Bonaparte saw religion as one of the most important means of strengthening his power. In 1801 he concluded a concordat with Pope Pius VII. Under the terms of this treaty, Catholicism was declared “the religion of the majority of the French.” The Pope recognized the sold church lands as the legal property of the new owners. Archbishops had to be appointed by the French government and then confirmed by the pope. The Catholic clergy had to support the power of the consuls.

2. Establishment of an empire. Napoleonic Codes.

Conspiracies periodically arose against Bonaparte from both Republicans and Royalists. In February 1804 The police uncovered another attempt at a conspiracy by royalists who were preparing the murder of the first consul. Several conspirators were executed. Bonaparte decided to intimidate foreign courts supporting the Bourbons. In March 1804, he ordered a detachment of dragoons to invade the territory of the neighboring Duchy of Baden, capture and take out the Duke of Enghien, who belonged to the House of Bourbon! The Duke was brought to Paris and soon shot. After these events, Napoleon declared his power hereditary and in May 1804 he accepted the title of Emperor of the French.

The period of Napoleon's reign was marked by the development of new rules of law that consolidated his personal power and new socio-economic and political relations that arose in society. Among the collections of laws developed, the Civil Code, which later became known as the Yapoleon Code, was of particular importance. The main place in it was occupied by articles that strengthened private property. The Code enshrined the principle of freedom of private enterprise and expanded the freedom to dispose of property by will. Much attention was paid to family relationships. The wife's property was considered the full property of the husband; the wife and children had no property rights. In 1807, the Civil Code came into force. The Commercial and Criminal Codes were also introduced (1808). The latter established harsh punishments for the slightest encroachments on private property.

In 1799-1804. The personal power of Napoleon Bonaparte was established. He created a new form of government in the state - a bourgeois monarchy, within which he had unlimited powers.

3. The nature and goals of the Napoleonic wars.

War with the third coalition. Trafalgar and Austerlitz.

After the defeat of the second coalition (1801), Napoleon took full advantage of the results of his victory. In 1802, France captured Piedmont, and the following year contributed to a coup d'etat in Switzerland and established its control over it. In 1803, the war with England resumed, and preparations began for an invasion of its territory.

At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, France was the largest centralized state in Western Europe. Its military superiority on the continent was undeniable. France had a first-class army, which was formed on the basis of universal conscription. French artillery and small arms were beyond competition. The most capable officers and generals were promoted to command posts. Napoleon developed and perfected warfare using mass armies. His enormous military and administrative talent was combined with boundless ambition, lust for power, thirst for conquest, and merciless cruelty. Relying on the army, Napoleon needed to constantly strengthen his power with new victories and conquests.

During the years of the Consulate and the Empire, the wars of France finally turned from revolutionary into unjust, aggressive, bringing foreign enslavement to the peoples of Europe. The purpose of the wars was to seize and plunder new territories, impose trade agreements beneficial to France, and establish its hegemony in Europe. On the other hand, for the feudal-absolutist countries of Europe, the Napoleonic wars had positive consequences. The defeats inflicted by Napoleon on the absolutist regimes more than once forced their governments to carry out long-overdue reforms and socio-political transformations.

In the summer of 1805, a third anti-French coalition was created, which included England, Russia, Austria, Sweden, Denmark and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. In general, the coalition could field over 500 thousand soldiers. Its goal was the expulsion of French troops from Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Holland and the restoration of monarchical regimes. The Allies concentrated their main forces on the secondary Italian front. Taking advantage of this, Napoleon transferred French troops across the Rhine and forced the Austrian army to capitulate near the Ulm fortress. In November 1805; The French army entered Vienna.

Meanwhile, Russian troops and the remnants of the Austrian army united in the Czech Republic. Napoleon longed for revenge for the crushing defeat of the French fleet at Cape Trafalgar, where the English squadron under the command of Admiral Nelson on October 21, 1805 defeated the French naval forces in the Mediterranean Sea. The British won a complete victory. Only a third of Admiral Villeneuve’s squadron returned to the port of Cadiz; he himself was captured. England remained the maritime mistress of the world.

French troops and the Russian-Austrian army met near the village of Austerlnz. This battle was called the “Battle of the Three Emperors.” Tsar Alexander decided to give battle according to the Austrian plan, drawn up with serious miscalculations and mistakes, rejecting the advice of Commander-in-Chief M.I. Kutuzov not to accept the battle until reinforcements arrived. On December 2, 1805, the Austrian and Russian armies were completely defeated. Incompetent command led to the fact that part of the Russian troops ended up on the thin ice of a large pond, which Napoleon ordered to fire with cannonballs, and the brave Russian soldiers found their death in its cold waters.

After Austerlitz, Austria signed a peace treaty with France in Pressburg (Bratislava). France formed the “Confederation of the Rhine” from the southern German states under its patronage, and annexed Venice, Istria and Dalmatia to the Kingdom of Italy. The Batavian Republic was renamed the Kingdom of Holland, of which Napoleon appointed his brother Louis as king.

4. The defeat of Prussia. War withfourthcoalition. Continental blockade andTilsit world.

Having defeated Austria, Napoleon directed his attack on Prussia and concentrated an army of 200,000 on its borders. In July 1806, an alliance treaty was signed between Russia and Prussia, which marked the beginning of the formation of the fourth coalition. England and Sweden joined the allies. But on October 14, 1806, simultaneously near Jena and Auersteopum, the main forces of the Prussian army were defeated. The fortresses surrendered one after another. Napoleonic army entered Berlin.

On November 21, 1806, Napoleon signed the Berlin Decree on the Continental Blockade. This decree prohibited all states dependent on France from trading with England. Having lost hope of a military invasion of England, Napoleon decided to strangle the country economically by closing European markets to it. Napoleon continued to pursue his policy of conquest mainly on the continent.

In 1807 Napoleon ordered the confiscation of neutral ships calling at the ports of England and its colonies. England, for its part, declared a blockade of the ports of France and its vassals. The English fleet intercepted neutral ships carrying goods to France.

Meanwhile, hostilities continued. After the defeat of Prussia, Napoleon moved his troops against the Russian army. On February 6, 1807, a bloody battle took place near Preussisch-Eylau in East Prussia. Both armies suffered huge losses, but the Russian troops held out on the battlefield. For the first time, Napoleon failed to win. But in the battle of Friedland on June 14, the Russian army was defeated.

Russia was going through difficult days. Military and human resources were running out, and no help was received from England. The Russian government was looking for ways to conclude a separate agreement with Napoleon. On the other hand, France has lost its offensive potential. There was clearly not enough strength for a large-scale war with Russia. The threat to France was posed by Austria, which was recovering from defeats and thirsting for revenge. Peace negotiations began between Alexander I and Napoleon. The meeting of both emperors in Tilsit (now Sovetsk, Kaliningrad region of Russia) ended on July 7, 1807 with the signing of a treaty of peace and alliance.

According to the Peace of Tilsit, Russia recognized the departure from Prussia of a significant part of the lands from which the Kingdom of Westphalia and the Duchy of Warsaw were created; Bialystok with the adjacent district went to Russia; Danzig (Gdansk) was declared a free city. Russia accepted an obligation to end the war with Turkey and become a mediator in peace negotiations between France and England. France pledged to act as a mediator in negotiations between Turkey and Russia. Russia joined the continental blockade. The Peace of Tilsit remained until Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812.

5. French invasion of SpainAndPortugal.War with Austria.

One of the countries that stubbornly refused to join the continental blockade was Portugal. Napoleon's attempts to put pressure on her were unsuccessful. Then he obtained from Spain consent to allow the French army to enter Portugal. England took the side of Portugal, which sent its troops into the territory of this country and the French invasion was repulsed.

After this, Napoleon sent troops to Spain, deprived the Spanish Bourbons of the throne and appointed his brother Joseph as king. At the same time, a large-scale liberation war began in Spain, which forced France to send significant military contingents to this country.

The Austrian government took advantage of the protracted war in Spain and began preparing for revenge. Napoleon was aware of Austria's preparations for war and made great efforts to prevent another clash.

Relations between France and Russia have deteriorated significantly. The meeting of the two emperors in Erfurt did not relieve tensions in relations between the states. The Russian government was extremely dissatisfied with the continental blockade, which ruined Russian landowners and merchants due to the curtailment of trade with England. The French government incited Iran, Turkey, Sweden to take active military action against Russia, and by 1808 Russia was actually fighting three wars.

At the same time, Russia did not want the weakening of Austria and saw in it a counterweight to Napoleonic France. Therefore, Russia sought to avoid participation in military actions against Austria, although at a meeting in Erfurt (October 1808), Alexander I did not exclude the possibility of a war between Russia and Austria. But this was a diplomatic probe. Napoleon, in turn, promised not to interfere with the accession of Moldova, Wallachia and Finland to Russia.

In 1809, England and Austria entered into an alliance and formed the fifth anti-French coalition. The Austrian army was well mobilized and numbered more than 300 thousand people in its ranks. The Austrian soldiers, overwhelmed by patriotic enthusiasm, fought with extreme bitterness and tenacity. July 5-6, 1809 Napoleon, with great difficulty, managed to defeat the Austrian army at Wagram. The total number of killed and wounded on both sides in this battle exceeded 40 thousand people.

October 14, 1809 The Treaty of Schönbrunn was signed. Austria lost its vast territory and access to the sea. Salzburg went to Bavaria. Napoleon united Istria and Trieste with Dalmatia and annexed them to France, calling them the Illyrian province. Austria pledged to join the continental blockade, limit its army to 150 thousand people, and pay indemnity to France.

6 . Preparing France for war with Russia.

The ultimate goal of the Napoleonic Empire was to achieve European and world domination. To do this, France needed to defeat and deprive all the major states of the continent and, above all, England and Russia of their independence. Relations between France and Russia began to deteriorate sharply already in 1810. The alliance concluded in Tilsit began to disintegrate. Napoleon broke his promise not to interfere with the annexation of the Danube principalities to Russia and incited Turkey and Iran to war with Russia. The ongoing continental blockade has also strained relations between the two countries. The reduction in the export of grain, timber, hemp and lard to England ruined Russian landowners and merchants. In 1EDO, duties on the import of French goods into Russia increased. A serious factor that aggravated relations between Russia and France was Napoleon’s use of the Duchy of Warsaw as a military springboard and ally against the Russian Empire.

From the end of 1810, Napoleon began preparing for a war with Russia, after the defeat of which he intended to deal with his last and main enemy - England. The Emperor of France shrewdly avoided a war on two fronts. A huge, so-called “Grand Army” was created, which numbered about 610 thousand people and 1,372 guns, more than half of which were military contingents of France’s allies - Prussian, Austrian, Bavarian, Saxon, Italian, Polish, Spanish and other units .

Napoleon plotted the dismemberment of Russia, the rejection of its Baltic, Polish and Lithuanian regions. He promised the Polish gentry the revival of the Polish-Lithuanian state. Napoleon intended to transfer the southern regions of Russia to Turkey and Iran. His strategic plans included a march through Transcaucasia to India in order to inflict a crushing defeat on the British there.

The Russian government was aware of the threat of war and sought to delay its outbreak. Russian diplomacy, taking advantage of Napoleon's military and economic difficulties, in particular the war in Spain, managed to somewhat delay the onset of the armed conflict and create a more favorable foreign policy situation for Russia as a result of the conclusion of the Bucharest Peace Treaty of 1812 with Turkey and a secret alliance treaty with Sweden (April 1812). In addition, Russia managed to increase the strength of its army and bring its number to 900 thousand people, including field troops - up to 500 thousand. But, since a significant part of the troops were in Moldova, Crimea, the Caucasus, Finland and inland , on the western borders it was possible by June 1812. concentrate only about 240 thousand people with 934 guns.

These forces were part of three armies: the 1st Army of General M.B. Barclay de Tolly (127 thousand people) deployed in the St. Petersburg direction, the 2nd Army of P.I. Bagration (48 thousand people) covered the Moscow direction, the 3rd Army of General A.P. Tormasova (46 thousand people) was in the Kiev direction. Separate Corps of General P.K. Essesh (18.5 thousand people) was located in the Riga region. There were only a few days left before the start of the war.

7 . Grand Duchy of Warsaw.

After the third partition of Poland, the emigration of Polish officers to the West intensified. Many of them, being in Paris, Dresden, and other European cities, harbored false hopes for the support of Napoleonic France in the revival of a unified Polish state. Legions were created from Polish officers, which were used in the aggressive policy of France. Polish troops served Napoleon during the war of 1806-1807. Napoleon, on the one hand, generously promised the Poles freedom and an independent state in the future. On the other hand, the emperor assured Prussia, Austria and Russia that they would retain Polish lands.

The Duchy of Warsaw or the Principality of Warsaw was created in 1807 as a vassal state of France from part of the Polish lands taken from Prussia. This happened as a result of the signing of the Peace of Tilsit. Napoleon made the Saxon king Frederick Augustus the Prince of Warsaw. The use of the words “Poland” and “Polish” in a political sense was not allowed.

In 1807 In the principality, personal serfdom of peasants was abolished, and in 1808 the French Civil Code was introduced. In the principality, exactions from the French administration intensified, and recruitment increased. In 1809, Napoleon annexed Western Galicia, seized from Austria, to the Duchy of Warsaw. The territory of the principality actually became a springboard for an attack on Russia.

E. The beginning of the war with Russia. -

Napoleon's plan was as follows: from the “Great Army”, over 440 thousand people were in the first line at the Russian border; the remaining troops (160 thousand people) were located in reserve between the Vistula and Oder. Napoleon concentrated his main forces in three directions: the left - under his direct command, the central - under the command of the Viceroy of Italy E. Bogornet and the right - under the command of the Westphalian king Jerome Bonaparte. These troops were supposed to encircle and destroy piece by piece the 1st and 2nd Russian armies with enveloping blows. On the left flank in the Riga region, the Prussian-French corps of J. Macdonald operated and on the right - the Austrian corps of K. Schwarzenberg against the 3rd Russian Army.

On the night of June 24, 1812, Napoleon's army crossed the Russian border on the Neman River in the Kovno (Kaunas) area without declaring war. Alexander made an attempt to stop hostilities and avoid war.

To this end, on June 26, he sent Adjutant General A.D. Balashov from Vilna to the French outposts with his personal letter to Napoleon, but this mission ended in failure.

The outbreak of war particularly worried* the British government, which was clearly aware of the threat to the interests of England from Napoleon. On July 18, despite certain contradictions, an alliance treaty was signed between England and Russia.

Napoleon's main goal was to capture Moscow. But the Russian command thwarted Napoleon's strategic plan. Both the first army of Barclay de Tolly and the second army of Bagration, having retreated, managed to escape the imposed general battle and preserve their strength.

Then Napoleon decided to prevent the unification of these Russian armies at all costs. But his plan was thwarted: the Russian armies managed to unite near Smolensk. At the time of the connection at Smolensk, the Russian army numbered 120 thousand people versus Napoleon’s 200 thousand people. It was not possible to defeat the Russian army piece by piece. Napoleon's strategic plan failed. Since the beginning of the war, his army has lost 150 thousand people killed, wounded, sick and deserters. Fighting efficiency and discipline declined, and looting spread.

In the stubborn Battle of Smolensk on August 4-6, Russian troops fought courageously against the rising forces of the enemy, but were still forced to abandon the city. Although Barclay de Tolly's actions were correct, the continuous retreat caused general discontent. Some even accused Barclay de Tolly of treason. This forced Alexander I to appoint General M.I. Kutuzov, who was popular among the troops, as commander-in-chief of all active armies. Kutuzov arrived in the army and took command on August 17 (29), 1812.

8 . The Battle of Borodino and the capture of Moscow.

The Battle of Borodino between Russian and French troops took place on August 26 (September 7), 1812 in the area of the village. Borodino is 110 km west of Moscow.

1st Army of M.B. Barclay de Tolly and 2nd Army of General P.I. Bagration, departing from Smolensk on August 5 on the road to Moscow under the pressure of superior enemy forces, reached August 17 this year. Tsarevo-Zaimishche, where M.I. arrived. Kutuzov, appointed commander-in-chief. By the evening of August 22, the main forces of the Russian army, having received 15.6 thousand reinforcements along the way, concentrated in the Borodino area, where Kutuzov decided to give the enemy a general battle.

Napoleon also, in turn, sought to defeat the Russian army in a general battle. Having a numerical superiority, Napoleon was going to break through the center of Russian positions, bypass their left flank and cut off the Russian army’s path to Moscow, in order to then solemnly enter the capital of Russia and force the government of Alexander I to capitulate.

Kutuzov decided to fight at Borodino in order to weaken the French army through stubborn defense and inflict as many losses as possible and stop its advance towards Moscow, while simultaneously preserving the combat effectiveness of the Russian troops. According to this plan, Kutuzov built a deep battle formation. Concentrating more than two-thirds of the troops on the right flank, Kutuzov reliably covered the New Smolensk road and, having imposed a frontal battle on the enemy, retained significant reserves for counterattacks.

Before the Battle of Borodino, the Russian army numbered 120 thousand people and 640 guns. Napoleon's army included 135 thousand people and 587 guns. The general battle was preceded by the battle on August 24 for the Shevardinsky redoubt, where Russian troops under the command of A.I. Gorchakov heroically repelled attacks from superior enemy forces. The Shevardinsky battle made it possible for Russian troops to complete defensive work at the main positions: on Kurgan Heights, where the battery of A. F. Raevsky was located, near the village of Semenovskaya, where earthen fortifications with 36 guns (Bagration’s flashes) were located. This battle allowed Kutuzov to establish that Napoleon's main forces were aimed at the center and left flank of the Russian army.

On September 7, seeing the rising sun, Napoleon exclaimed: “Here it is, the sun of Austerlitz!” The battle has begun. After a powerful artillery barrage, the troops of Marshals Davout, Ney and Murat attacked Bagration’s flushes. Every minute the picture of the battle changed. N.N.’s corps fought heroically. Raevsky, who bled the group of Ney and Murat. In the battle, General P.I. Bagration was mortally wounded. Napoleon did not dare to bring his last reserve, the old guard, into battle: “Eight hundred leagues from Paris, I cannot risk my last reserve.”

Just at this time, Uvarov’s cavalry and Platov’s Cossacks broke through to the French rear. The French attacked furiously, but they failed to defeat Kutuzov's army. The Russian commander-in-chief did not continue the battle the next day. At night, Russian troops formed into marching columns, left the fortifications and set off through Moscow to the south, not allowing the French regiments to come within shooting distance.

The Battle of Borodino is over. The Russian army bled the enemy dry and inflicted irreparable losses on him - over 58 thousand people (or 43%) of all those who took part in the battle. Napoleon's army was missing 10 generals, 39 generals were wounded. The losses of the Russian army were also great: 44 thousand people were killed, including 23 generals, but despite this, the Russian army retained the will to win.

On September 1 (13), Kutuzov convened a military council in Fili. Most of the generals spoke out in favor of a new battle, although they were not sure of its successful outcome. After listening carefully to everyone, Kutuzov announced his decision to leave Moscow without a fight. “With the loss of Moscow,” he said, “Russia is not lost yet... But when the army is destroyed, Moscow and Russia will perish.” Showing great courage and restraint, the commander-in-chief practically took full responsibility for the consequences of this decision upon himself.

On September 2 (14), Russian troops left the city. On the very first day of Napoleon's troops entering Moscow, fires began in the city, which lasted until September 6 (18) and devastated 2/3 of the city. The French rushed through the empty streets, broke into miraculously surviving houses and estates, and robbed the civilian population. Kutuzov gathered troops for decisive action, militias and partisans raided communications, small detachments, caught and killed the French.

The expected peace did not happen. The early cold was setting in. Napoleon decided to leave Moscow. Leaving the city, Bonaparte gave the order to General Mortier to blow up the Moscow Kremlin and St. Basil's Cathedral. The general did not dare to disobey the emperor, but he had little time. And he wasn’t particularly eager to carry out a meaningless assignment. The sappers planted too few explosives. There were explosions. Catherine's palace was blown up, the walls of the Kremlin towers cracked.

9. Retreat and defeat of Napoleon's army.

Kutuzov made a skillful flank maneuver and, having transferred the army from the Ryazan road to the Kaluga road, stopped in the Tarutino camp. Having closed the road to the south of Russia for Napoleon's troops, the field marshal launched intensive preparations for going on the offensive.

Napoleon's army experienced increasing difficulties from the intensifying "small war" - the bold operations of army partisan detachments created by Kutuzov, and peasant partisan detachments that besieged Napoleonic troops in Moscow and disrupted their supplies.

The difficult situation forced Napoleon to send the Russian commander-in-chief, French General J.A. Lauriston, to the headquarters with peace proposals addressed to Alexander I. Kutuzov rejected proposals for peace or reconciliation, declaring that the war was just beginning and would not be stopped until the enemy was expelled from Russian land.

According to Kutuzov's plan, in the area between the Western Dvina and Dnieper rivers, the army of Admiral Chichagov and the corps of General Wittgenstein defeated the enemy and drove him out of Polotsk. North of Tarutin on the Chernishna River the selected troops of Marshal Murat were defeated.

On October 6 (18), the “Great Army” ingloriously left the Russian capital. After 4 days, Russian troops entered the capital. Napoleon's attempt to break into the southern regions of the country ended in failure. Russian troops blocked the enemy's path at Maloyaroslavets and, after fierce fighting, forced him to turn onto the Smolensk road, which he had destroyed. Now Napoleon, realizing the collapse of his plans of conquest, in every possible way avoided the decisive battle that the Russian command imposed on him. Kutuzov organized a parallel pursuit of the retreating Napoleonic troops. They were pressed from the rear by the Cossack regiments of Ataman M.Y. Platov, the corps of General M.A. was moving south of the Smolensk road. Miloradovich, flying squads of A.P. Ozharovsky, D.V. Davydov and north of the road - detachments of P.V. Golenishcheva-Kutuzova, P.M. Volkonsky. Due to lack of food in Napoleon's army, a massive loss of horses began, forcing the enemy to abandon their artillery.

On November 3, the troops of Milorodovich and Platov defeated the French rearguard of L. Davout near Vyazma. Under the threat of encirclement, Napoleon was forced to leave Smolensk, and soon suffered a major defeat at Krasnoye (November 15-18), where M. Ney’s rearguard was defeated. During a month of fighting, Russian troops captured 90 thousand prisoners and over 500 guns. The cold weather began, poorly dressed and hungry soldiers of Napoleonic army lost their combat effectiveness. It was still preserved by the guard and the corps of K. Victor and G. Saint-Cyr, which joined the main forces. Of the surviving soldiers of the main forces of the “Great Army,” there were about 40 thousand people in the ranks, the rest were a demoralized mass.

The denouement came on the Berezina River, where the ring of strategic encirclement of Napoleonic army closed. Despite the slowness and lack of coordination of the actions of Chichagov and Wittgenstein, and their inability to unravel Napoleon’s diversionary maneuvers, Kutuzov managed to inflict a crushing defeat on the French troops.

After crossing the river. Berezina November 26 - 28, 1812. The “Great Army” ceased to exist as an organized fighting force. Napoleon, having transferred command to Murat, left for Paris. During the Patriotic War, Napoleonic army lost up to 550 thousand people. Kutuzov, in his army order, congratulated the troops on expelling the enemy from Russia and called on them to “complete the defeat of the enemy on his own fields.” A little earlier, on November 25, 1812, Alexander issued a Manifesto on the end of the Patriotic War.

10. Allied offensivearmiesto Paris.

Napoleon's abdication.

Returning at the end of 1812 In Paris, Napoleon immediately began to create a new army. From France and the vassal countries, he drew, regardless of anything, human resources, food, and financial resources. Napoleon was in a hurry to strike the Russian and Prussian armies before they received reinforcements, and while the German allies in the Confederation of the Rhine were still loyal to him, and he hoped to neutralize Austria.

In a short time, Napoleon put everyone he could recruit under arms - more than 300 thousand people. But the balance of power was not as favorable for him as before. A new, sixth, coalition was formed against France, which included Russia, Prussia, Austria and Sweden. In the spring of 1813 in Saxony, Napoleon managed to inflict a number of defeats on the allies, but by the summer the coalition armies already numbered over a million people.

On October 16 - 19, 1813, a decisive battle took place near Leipzig. More than half a million soldiers took part in it, it was distinguished by extreme cruelty and bloodshed and went down in history under the name “Battle of the Nations.” Napoleon's army suffered a crushing defeat and began a hasty retreat.

In early December, the last parts of the defeated French army crossed the Rhine. After the Battle of Leipzig, French rule in Germany was ended. The Confederation of the Rhine collapsed. French domination in Holland and other European countries ended.

Having been defeated in Spain, the French army was forced to retreat into France.

The Allied troops that entered France were 5 times larger than the military forces that Napoleon still had at his disposal. Nevertheless, Napoleon managed to prolong the war for some time and even inflict a number of defeats on the enemy troops. At the same time, the forces were too unequal. At the end of March 1814, the Allied troops marched on Paris and on March 31 entered the capital of France.

The Bourbon royalists, emboldened by the presence of the huge coalition army, raised their heads. On the initiative of the former Napoleonic minister Talleyrand and other dignitaries of the empire, who had now gone over to the side of the royalists, the Senate decided to depose Napoleon and proclaimed Louis XVIII, the brother of Louis XVI, executed in 1793, king.

Napoleon was forced to abdicate the throne, after which he was exiled to the island of Elba, which was given to him for life. Before leaving, he wished to say goodbye to his guard. The best warriors of France lined up in the ceremonial palace of Fontainebleau. Officers and generals stood in front, veteran soldiers behind. With them; he won all his victories. They never let him down in battle.

Napoleon said a farewell word to them: “I would like to squeeze you all in my arms, but let me kiss the banner. It represents you all." After kissing the banner, the emperor got into the carriage. The guards shouted: “Long live the Emperor!” And many of them burst into tears. Thus, against a high emotional background, the star “set” of Napoleon Bonaparte, who, like some of his predecessors, tried to establish world domination. The peoples of Europe breathed a sigh of relief. The rulers of small countries and great powers took up peaceful problems.

11. Bourbon Restoration. "One hundred days."

The defeat of Napoleon's army at Waterloo.

The Bourbon restoration took place with the help of the troops of European monarchs.

Emigrant nobles returned to France. They were full of hostility towards the revolution and its gains. At the insistence of the allies (especially Alexander I) and French politicians, who understood the impossibility of returning to the old feudal-absolutist order, overthrown a quarter of a century earlier, in 1814 Louis XVIII promulgated the Charter (constitution). A constitutional monarchy regime was established in the country. Only the richest people retained the right to vote; their number ranged from 12 to 15 thousand people. Louis XVIII was also forced to recognize the changes in land ownership made during the years of the revolution and empire and agree to the abolition of class privileges.

At the same time, embittered and vindictive aristocrats, who had cultivated in themselves over the long years of emigration a hatred of everything new, sought to completely return the country to the pre-revolutionary regime. In the circles of former emigrants, the issue of returning to the former owners the land holdings confiscated from them during the revolutions was seriously discussed. The peasantry was threatened by the restoration of feudal duties and church tithes.

Being on about. Elba, Napoleon followed the developments in the country. He subtly felt the hatred caused by the actions of the aristocrats who were trying to throw France back into the past. Naples was also aware of the acute disagreements between the participants in the congress that opened in Vienna in October 1814 - Russia and Prussia, on the one hand, and Austria and England, on the other, as a result of which the unity of the anti-French coalition was seriously undermined. Considering all this, Napoleon decided to resume the fight.

On March 1, 1815, Napoleon landed on the southern coast of France with a small detachment of a thousand people and six cannons. Three weeks later, without firing a single shot, he, at the head of numerous troops sent against him, but who went over to his side, entered Paris triumphantly. Louis XVIII and his court barely had time to flee abroad. But foreign powers sought to prevent the restoration of the Napoleonic empire. Hostility towards Napoleon brought them together again. The participants of the Vienna Congress quickly agreed among themselves. A new, seventh, coalition of European monarchies was formed consisting of England, Russia, Prussia, Austria, Sweden, Spain and other states.

The Allies had an overwhelming advantage in manpower and weapons. Long years of fighting had already exhausted France's resources, and its population was disappointed by Napoleon's intention to maintain the former despotic regime of the empire. On June 18, Napoleonic army was finally defeated by English and Prussian troops near Brussels, near the village of Waterloo. Allied forces invaded France and reoccupied Paris.

After the Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon again abdicated the throne (June 22, 1815). He thought of leaving for America, but was unable to carry out this intention due to the blockade of the coast of France by an English squadron and was forced to surrender to the British. The British government, with the consent of the other allies, sent Napoleon to St. Helena Island (in the South Atlantic Ocean). Here he died in May 1821.

After the secondary reign of Napoleon, which went down in history as the “Hundred Days,” the Bourbons again established themselves in France.

12. Convening of the Congress of Vienna. Final act. Creation of the Holy Alliance.

Soon after the victory over Napoleon, representatives of all European powers (with the exception of Turkey) gathered in the capital of Austria to resolve issues related to the restoration in Europe of feudal orders and legitimate dynasties overthrown during the Napoleonic wars. The Congress of Vienna opened in September 1814. Since in May 1814 The Treaty of Paris was signed between the members of the anti-French coalition, which provided for the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty in France and its return to the borders of 1792. The Congress of Vienna focused its attention on the problems of a peaceful settlement in Europe. At the same time, sharp contradictions arose between its participants on this issue .

Russia sought to annex the Duchy of Warsaw to its territory, which England and Austria resolutely opposed. The Russian emperor promised to restore local laws in Poland and adopt a constitution. In an effort to maintain the rivalry of two strong states in Europe - Austria and Prussia, which would act as a counterweight, Russia signed a secret agreement with Prussia on the transfer to it of Saxony, where Russian troops were located.

England, Austria and France opposed the Russian-Prussian alliance, and in December 1814 they signed a secret agreement on joint actions. The Austrian Chancellor Metternich sought to strengthen the influence of the Viennese government on the German states and was opposed to their unification.

In March 1815 the work of the congress was unexpectedly interrupted by the news of Napoleon's new attempt to regain power. Moreover, on the eve of Napoleon’s last defeat at Waterloo, in June 1815. The Final General Act of the Congress of Vienna was signed. It provided for the return of France to the borders of 1792, the unification of Belgium and Holland into the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the restoration of the Sardinian Kingdom in Italy with the return of Savoy and Nice to it. In addition, Austria restored its power in Venice and Lombardy, Prussia received Westphalia, the Rhineland and Pomerania. Norway was taken from Napoleon's ally Denmark and annexed to Sweden. England secured the colonies conquered during the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, the most important of which were the Island of Malta, the Cape region in southern Africa and the island of Ceylon.

The Congress of Vienna consolidated the political fragmentation of Germany. The German Confederation was created, which included 34 independent states and 4 free cities. At the same time, the Congress did not dare to restore all German dynasties and completely eradicate the results of the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars.

The Swiss Confederation was formed from 19 cantons, which proclaimed eternal neutrality.

The system of alliances played an important role in maintaining European balance and monarchical regimes. On the initiative of Alexander I in November 1815. Russia, England, Austria and Prussia signed an act creating the Quadruple Alliance, which was supposed to contribute to the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty in France and control the implementation of the decisions of the Congress of Vienna.

In September 1815, Russia, Austria and Prussia agreed to create the Holy Alliance. His political task was to maintain the principle of legitimism (legality) in Europe, which in reality meant the protection of feudal-absolutist regimes. At the Congress of the Union in 1820, the right of its members to intervene in the internal affairs of other powers was declared in the event of an immediate threat to monarchical power. Therefore, Austria was able to conduct punitive expeditions in Naples and Piedmont in 1822. The Congress of the Holy Alliance in Verona at the end of 1822 gave France a mandate to suppress the revolution in Spain.

The Holy Alliance collapsed at the end of the 20s, which aggravated disagreements between its members on the issues of national liberation struggle in the Spanish colonies of Latin America and the uprising in Greece in 1821. Based on its own interests, England sought recognition of the independence of the peoples of Latin America, which Austria opposed. Russia supported the uprising of the Greek people against the Ottoman yoke and put forward the idea of Greek autonomy, which caused protest from England and Austria. The split in the Allied camp indicated that the system of European balance could not be strong. The Congress of Vienna recorded a new balance of power in the international arena after the Napoleonic wars and contributed to the temporary stabilization of the situation in Europe based on the restoration of monarchical regimes.

1. Ya. M. Berdichevsky, S.A. Osmolovsky “World History” 2001 P. 111-128.

2. S. L. Bramin “History of Europe”. 1998 pp. 100-109

3. L.A. Livanov “World History” textbook. 2002 pp. 150-164.

4. Zagladin N.V. World History. History of Russia and the world from ancient times to the end of the 19th century: textbook for grade 10. Ї 6th ed. Ї M.: LLC "TID "Russian Word Ї RS", 2006 (§ 41).

ABSTRACT

on the topic of:

"Reign of NapoleonBonaparte. The first empire in France"

1. Organization of the power of the consulate. Concordat.

In 1802, a plebiscite was held, which assigned Napoleon Bonaparte the post of first consul for life, gave him the right to approve peace treaties and appoint a successor.

2. Establishment of an empire. Napoleonic Codes.

The period of Napoleon's reign was marked by the development of new rules of law that consolidated his personal power and new socio-economic and political relations that arose in society. Among the collections of laws developed, the Civil Code, which later became known as the Yapoleon Code, was of particular importance. The main place in it was occupied by articles that strengthened private property. The Code enshrined the principle of freedom of private enterprise and expanded the freedom to dispose of property by will. Much attention was paid to family relationships. The wife's property was considered the full property of the husband; the wife and children had no property rights. In 1807, the Civil Code came into force. The Commercial and Criminal Codes were also introduced (1808). The latter established harsh penalties for the slightest encroachment on private property.

In 1799-1804. The personal power of Napoleon Bonaparte was established. He created a new form of government in the state - a bourgeois monarchy, within which he had unlimited powers.

3. The nature and goals of the Napoleonic wars.

War with the third coalition. Trafalgar and Austerlitz.

4. The defeat of Prussia. War withfourth coalition. Continental blockade and the Peace of Tilsit.

5. Invasion of French troops into Spain and Portugal.War with Austria.

After this, Napoleon sent troops to Spain, deprived the Spanish Bourbons of the throne and appointed his brother Joseph as king. However, a large-scale liberation war began in Spain, which forced France to send significant military contingents to this country.

6. Preparation of France for war with Russia.

The ultimate goal of the Napoleonic Empire was to achieve European and world domination. To do this, France needed to defeat and deprive all the major states of the continent and, above all, England and Russia of their independence. Relations between France and Russia began to deteriorate sharply already in 1810. The alliance concluded in Tilsit began to disintegrate. Napoleon broke his promise not to interfere with the annexation of the Danube principalities to Russia and incited Turkey and Iran to war with Russia. The ongoing continental blockade has also strained relations between the two countries. The reduction in the export of grain, timber, hemp and lard to England ruined Russian landowners and merchants. In 1EDO, duties on the import of French goods into Russia increased. A serious factor that strained relations between Russia and France was Napoleon's use of the Duchy of Warsaw as a military springboard and ally against the Russian Empire.

7. Grand Duchy of Warsaw.

E. The beginning of the war with Russia. -

To this end, on June 26, he sent Adjutant General A.D. Balashov from Vilna to the French outposts with his personal letter to Napoleon, but this mission ended in failure.

8. Battle of Borodino and capture of Moscow.

The Battle of Borodino between Russian and French troops took place on August 26 (September 7), 1812 in the area of the village. Borodino is 110 km west of Moscow.

On September 1 (13), Kutuzov convened a military council in Fili. Most of the generals were in favor of a new battle, although they were not sure of its successful outcome. After listening carefully to everyone, Kutuzov announced his decision to leave Moscow without a fight. “With the loss of Moscow,” he said, “Russia is not lost yet... But when the army is destroyed, Moscow and Russia will perish.” Showing great courage and restraint, the commander-in-chief practically took full responsibility for the consequences of this decision upon himself.

9. Retreat and defeat of Napoleon's army.

10. The offensive of the Allied armies on Paris.

Napoleon's abdication.

Having been defeated in Spain, the French army was forced to retreat into France.

The Allied troops that entered France were 5 times larger than the military forces that Napoleon still had at his disposal. Nevertheless, Napoleon managed to prolong the war for some time and even inflict a number of defeats on the enemy troops. However, the forces were too unequal. At the end of March 1814, the Allied troops marched on Paris and on March 31 entered the capital of France.

11. Bourbon Restoration. "One hundred days."

The defeat of Napoleon's army at Waterloo.

The Bourbon restoration took place with the help of the troops of European monarchs.

However, the embittered and vengeful aristocrats, who had cultivated in themselves a hatred of everything new over the long years of emigration, sought to completely return the country to the pre-revolutionary regime. In the circles of former emigrants, the issue of returning to the former owners the land holdings confiscated from them during the revolutions was seriously discussed. The peasantry was threatened by the restoration of feudal duties and church tithes.

After the secondary reign of Napoleon, which went down in history as the “Hundred Days,” the Bourbons again established themselves in France.

12. Convening of the Congress of Vienna. Final act. Creation of the Holy Alliance.

Soon after the victory over Napoleon, representatives of all European powers (with the exception of Turkey) gathered in the capital of Austria to resolve issues related to the restoration in Europe of feudal orders and legitimate dynasties overthrown during the Napoleonic wars. The Congress of Vienna opened in September 1814. Since in May 1814 The Treaty of Paris was signed between the members of the anti-French coalition, which provided for the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty in France and its return to the borders of 1792. The Congress of Vienna focused its attention on the problems of a peaceful settlement in Europe. However, sharp contradictions arose between its participants on this issue.

In March 1815 the work of the congress was unexpectedly interrupted by the news of Napoleon's new attempt to regain power. However, on the eve of Napoleon's last defeat at Waterloo, in June 1815. The Final General Act of the Congress of Vienna was signed. It provided for the return of France to the borders of 1792, the unification of Belgium and Holland into the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the restoration of the Sardinian Kingdom in Italy with the return of Savoy and Nice to it. In addition, Austria restored its power in Venice and Lombardy, Prussia received Westphalia, the Rhineland and Pomerania. Norway was taken from Napoleon's ally Denmark and annexed to Sweden. England secured the colonies conquered during the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, the most important of which were the Island of Malta, the Cape region in southern Africa and the island of Ceylon.

The Congress of Vienna consolidated the political fragmentation of Germany. The German Confederation was created, which included 34 independent states and 4 free cities. However, the Congress did not dare to restore all German dynasties and completely eradicate the results of the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars.

The Swiss Confederation was formed from 19 cantons, which proclaimed eternal neutrality.

Bibliography

1. Ya. M. Berdichevsky, S.A. Osmolovsky “World History” 2001 P. 111-128.

2. S. L. Bramin “History of Europe”. 1998 pp. 100-109

3. L.A. Livanov “World History” textbook. 2002 pp. 150-164.

4. Zagladin N.V. World History. History of Russia and the world from ancient times to the end of the 19th century: textbook for grade 10. - 6th ed. ― M.: LLC TID “Russian Word - RS”, 2006 (§ 41).

On November 9, 1799 (according to the revolutionary calendar, 18 Brumaire), Napoleon Bonaparte carried out a coup d'etat. The legislative body transferred power to three consuls led by Napoleon. To legally formalize his power, Napoleon adopted a new Constitution: France remained a republic, but virtually all power was in the hands of the first consul, that is, Bonaparte. The first consul was the commander-in-chief of the army and appointed members of all legislative bodies. Local self-government was abolished. The departments were administered by prefects, who were appointed by the first consul. The ministers were also accountable to the first consul.

Napoleon preserved those achievements of the French Revolution that were beneficial to industrialists and the wealthy peasantry. Having established a dictatorship of personal power, he received the support of those who acquired wealth and land during the revolution. To strengthen his power, Napoleon in 1801 abolished the separation of the church from the state.

1804 Bonaparte was crowned Emperor of the French Napoleon I. A military-bureaucratic monarchy was actually established in the country, relying not on the feudal nobility, but on the bourgeoisie, the army, and officials.

For Napoleon, sets of laws were adopted - the “Napoleonic Code” (civil, commercial and criminal), which should regulate relations in society and protect the inviolability of private property. The laws were progressive because they provided for the development of free competition and contributed to the rise of the French economy. The industrial revolution began in the country, finances were streamlined, and the French Bank was founded. Along with the economy, the French bourgeoisie grew stronger.

Napoleon's foreign policy aimed to ensure France's economic and political dominance in Europe. The armies of England, Russia, Austria, and Prussia could not resist the French, which became the first regular army in Europe.

The army was not composed of mercenaries, as in most countries, but personally free peasants, it was led by capable commanders, Napoleon himself was talented

commander. In 1800-1801 Napoleon inflicted several defeats on his troops

1805. England, Russia, Austria and Prussia, fearing the establishment of Napoleon's dominance in Europe, began a war against Napoleonic France. For Austria, the start of the war was unsuccessful: part of its troops in the Ulm fortress capitulated, and Napoleon’s army entered Vienna. At sea, at Cape Trafalgar, the English admiral Nelson defeated the French-Spanish fleet. But in the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805, Austrian and Russian troops suffered a crushing defeat. Austria capitulated. 1806. Napoleon defeated Prussian troops and entered Berlin. There he signed a decree on the continental blockade, which prohibited Austria, Prussia and all states of the European continent dependent on France from trading or having any connections with England. Napoleon sought to undermine the power of England by closing European markets to it. In response, England blocked French ports.

At the beginning of 1807, Napoleon defeated the Russian army. In Tilsit, Napoleon and Alexander I signed a treaty of peace and alliance between France and Russia. Russia recognized French conquests in Europe and joined the continental blockade of England.

in І807-1808. French troops occupied Spain. The Spanish throne was taken by Napoleon's brother Joseph. The people of Spain rebelled and began a guerrilla war. In this war, which lasted until 1812, the French lost about 500 thousand men.

1809 Austria, taking advantage of France's failures in Spain, took the side of England. But Napoleonic France again defeated Austria, which signed an important and humiliating peace treaty for it.

Napoleon's dominance in Europe was hindered by Russia, which violated the continental blockade and allowed neutral ships to enter Russian ports. French-Russian relations have deteriorated sharply.

1812 Napoleon's army of almost half a million attacked Russia. Napoleon's attempt to defeat the Russian troops in units was in vain. Two Russian armies, having united at Smolensk and having endured a difficult battle, retreated to Moscow. In the Battle of Moscow on the Borodino Field, troops under the command of Mikhail Kutuzov bled Napoleon's army, although they could not win. The French captured Moscow, whose population fled the city. Napoleon's attempts to impose peace on the Russian emperor were unsuccessful. Fires started in Moscow, complicating the situation for the French troops. Partisans operated behind French lines. Napoleon was forced to leave Moscow and retreated. In 1812, about 20 thousand soldiers and officers of Napoleon's army fled across the river. Neman to Poland.

Napoleon's defeat in the War of 1812 led to the further collapse of the Napoleonic empire. Napoleon, returning to France, created a new army that must fight against the Russian troops that entered Germany. But

now he had to fight against all of Europe (Russia, England, Austria, Spain, Prussia, Sweden, etc.).

1813 etc. A decisive battle took place in Leipzig - the “Battle of the Nations”. The French troops were defeated. At the beginning of 1814 Allied troops entered French territory and then entered Paris. Napoleon abdicated the throne.

At the request of the victors and the old French aristocracy, the Senate restored the royal Bourbon dynasty. Napoleon was sent into lifelong exile on the island of Elba. The Peace of Paris of 1814 was concluded, according to which France got rid of all territorial conquests. Napoleon's attempt to return to power in 1815 (“one hundred days”) was unsuccessful.

In the battle near the village of Waterloo (near Brussels), Napoleon's army was finally defeated by English and Prussian troops. The first Napoleonic Empire ceased to exist.

The Napoleonic wars showed the aggressive and anti-popular nature of the Bonaparte regime. These wars were a period of difficult trials for the peoples of Europe. Adventurous attempts to achieve world domination led Napoleon's empire to collapse.

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