Motivation as a function of management. The main groups of theories of motivation: substantive and procedural. Brief description of the main content and process theories of motivation.

Motivation is the process of motivating oneself and others to act in order to achieve certain goals.

Motivation can be viewed in two ways as:

Determining and creating conditions that encourage effective work, taking into account the needs, psychology, behavior of an individual and a group;

A process that begins with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates behavior or creates a drive aimed at achieving a goal or obtaining a reward.

Basic methods of motivation:

Methods of economic motivation - salary, bonus, benefits, interest, profit sharing, additional payment;

Methods of social motivation - public recognition, gratitude, admiration;

Methods of psychological motivation - a sense of self-worth, indifference, inferiority, uselessness;

Methods of power motivation - promotion, granting additional powers;

Social and psychological methods - increasing social activity, sharing experiences, criticism, business, managerial and professional ethics;

Methods of moral motivation - personal and public recognition, praise and criticism;

Methods of design and redesign (enrichment) of work;

Method of involving employees in management;

Methods for studying motivation and motives - experimental methods, methods for assessing behavior and its causes from the outside, study methods (conversation, survey, questionnaire).

Motivational theories are divided into two groups: substantive and procedural. Content theories of motivation are based on the identification of internal factors, i.e. needs that force people to act in one way or another. More recent process theories of motivation focus primarily on how people behave, taking into account factors such as perception and cognition.

1. The theory (model) of A. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, according to which all human needs can be divided into five groups: physiological needs; needs for security and confidence in the future; Social needs, needs for respect, recognition, needs for self-expression are the needs for the realization of one’s potential. Before the need of the next level becomes the most powerful determining factor in human behavior, the need of a lower level must be satisfied.

2. McClelland's theory of needs, according to which three types of needs are distinguished: the need for power, for success and for belonging.

3. F. Herzberg’s two-factor theory (model) of motivation, which identifies hygiene factors (working conditions, social relationships, organizational leadership style, remuneration, socio-psychological climate at the enterprise) and motivators (work as a value in itself, a sense of responsibility, perhaps improvement).

Process motivation theories:

1. V. Vroom's expectancy theory is based on the idea that the presence of an active need is not the only condition for an individual to have a motive to direct his behavior to achieve a specific goal; he must also expect that the behavior will actually lead to satisfaction or to getting what he wants.

2. The equity theory postulates that people subjectively determine the ratio of reward received to effort expended and then compare it with the reward of other people and those performing similar work. If the comparison shows imbalance and injustice, then the person experiences psychological tension. As a result, it is necessary to motivate this employee, relieve tension and correct the imbalance.

3. Theory of L. Porter and E. Loyler (complex theory of motivation). This theory involves five variables: effort expended, perception, results obtained, reward, degree of satisfaction. The level of effort exerted is determined by the value of the reward and the degree of confidence that this effort will actually lead to a certain level of reward birth.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

MOSCOW UNIVERSITY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

KIROV BRANCH

FACULTY OF ECONOMICS

Specialty - ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT

COURSE WORK

in the discipline "Organization Management"

subject: « Theories of motivation and their application in management.»

Completed by: 3rd year student of group No. EZ-33

Zainullina Liliya Alexandrovna

Checked by: Gasanova Ekaterina Anatolyevna

Senior Lecturer at Kirov MFUA

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………………..

Chapter 1. THE CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION …………………………………………………

2.1. Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs……………………………………

2.2. Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory………………………………….

2.3. McClelland's theory of motivation………………………………………………………………..

2.4. Clayton Alderfer's theory…………………………………………………….

Chapter 3. PROCESSAL THEORIES OF MOTIVATION…………………………..

3.1. Expectancy theory……………………………..

3.2. Theory of justice………………………………………………………………………………

3.3. The theory of motivation by Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler…………………….

3.4. Douglas McGregor's theory of motivation…………………………………………………………….

Chapter 4. CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………………..

INTRODUCTION

Why do people work? Why do some people do easy work and remain dissatisfied, while others do hard work with pleasure? What needs to be done to make people work better and more productively? How to make work more fun? What causes the desire and need to work? These and many other similar questions necessarily arise when people are managed. The management of an organization can develop excellent plans and strategies, find optimal structures and create effective systems for transmitting and processing information, install the most modern equipment in the organization and use the most modern technologies. However, everything will be nullified if the members of the organization do not work properly, do not behave appropriately in the team, strive with their work, contribute to the achievement of the organization's goals and fulfill its mission.

A person's readiness and desire to do his job are one of the key factors for the success of an organization. Man is not a machine; he cannot be “turned on” when his work is required, and “turned off” when his work is no longer needed. Even if a person must perform routine work, very simple in content and easy to control and account for, work that does not require a creative approach and high qualifications, even in this case, mechanical compulsion to work cannot give a high positive result. The slave-owning system of farming and the communist camp system clearly proved that, contrary to the will and desire of a person, much cannot be achieved from him.

Throughout the centuries-long history of the development of human civilization, various leaders from our today's point of view largely misunderstood the behavior of people, but, nevertheless, the techniques they used to achieve their goals in those conditions were often very effective. This is confirmed by the fact that these techniques have worked and been used for many hundreds of years, and modern theories were created

30-40 years ago, so the original concepts of motivation are deeply ingrained in our minds and culture. One of the first widespread and applied methods by which it was possible to deliberately influence people to successfully complete the tasks facing a particular country, social group or organization is the “carrot and stick policy”.

In many historical and literary sources, for example in the Bible, myths and legends of the Ancient world, medieval legends about the knights of the round table and Russian folk tales, one can find many examples of how leaders (kings, leaders, etc.) offer a reward to the supposed the hero for completing one or another mission for his daughters and half the kingdom in addition, or they promise the death penalty for not completing the task: “Or else my sword will be your head off your shoulders.”

The path to effective human management lies through understanding motivation. Only by knowing what motivates a person, what motivates him to act, what motives underlie his actions, can we try to develop an effective system of forms and methods of managing a person. To do this, you need to know how certain motives arise or are caused, how and in what ways motives can be put into action, how people are motivated.

Chapter 1. Motivation concept .

The motivation function is of great importance for achieving the goals of the organization. In general terms, a person’s motivation for activity is understood as a set of driving forces that encourage a person to carry out certain actions.

Motivation (from Greekmotif, from LatinMoveo– moving) is the process of motivating oneself and other people to act in order to achieve organizational or personal goals. The main terms of motivation are: need and motive.

Need - this is what arises and is “inside” a person, which is quite common for different people, but at the same time has a certain individual manifestation in each person. A person strives to free himself from need, since while it exists, it makes itself felt and “demands” its elimination. People may try in different ways to eliminate needs, satisfy them, suppress them, or not respond to them. Needs can arise both consciously and unconsciously. If a need is eliminated, this does not mean that it is eliminated forever. Most needs are renewed periodically, although they may vary in the degree of persistence and influence on the person.

Motive – it is what causes certain human actions. The motive is “inside” a person, has a personal character, depends on many factors external and internal to the person, as well as the actions of other motives that arise in parallel with it. Motive not only motivates a person to action, but also determines what needs to be done and how this action will be carried out. In particular, if a motive causes actions to eliminate a need, then these actions can be completely different for different people, even if they experience the same need. Motives are understandable. A person can influence his motives.

Human behavior is usually determined not by one motive, but by a combination of them, in which motives can be in a certain relation to each other according to the degree of their impact on human behavior. Therefore, the motivational system can be considered as the basis for the implementation of certain actions. The motivational structure of a person has a certain stability, but it can change, in particular, consciously in the process of his upbringing, his education. This is where the concept of motivation comes into play.

Motivation - this is the process of influencing a person with the aim of inducing him to certain actions by awakening certain motives in him. Motivation remains the core and basis of human management. The effectiveness of management depends to a very large extent on how successfully the motivation process is carried out.

Depending on what motivates you, there are two main types of motivation:

- the first type is that, through external influences on a person, certain motives are called into action, which encourage a person to carry out certain actions that lead to a desired result for the motivating subject. With this type of motivation, you need to know well what motives can motivate a person to desired actions, as well as how to evoke these motives. This type of motivation can be expressed by the phrase: “I give you what you want, and you give me what I want.” If the two parties do not have points of interaction, then the motivation process will not be able to take place.

- the second type of motivation sets as its main task the formation of a certain motivational structure of a person. The main attention is paid to the development and strengthening of the motives of human action that are desirable for the subject of motivation, and vice versa, the weakening of motives that interfere with the effective management of a person. This type of motivation is in the nature of educational work and most often is not associated with any specific actions or results that are expected to be received from a person as a result of his activities. This type of motivation requires much more effort, knowledge and features for its implementation, but its results in general greatly exceed the results of the first type of motivation. Organizations that have mastered it and use it in their practice can manage their staff much more successfully and efficiently.

The first and second types of motivation should not be opposed, since in modern management practice progressively managed organizations strive to combine both of these types of motivation.

Chapter 2. Content theories

Substantive theories of motivation are distinguished by a deep analysis of a person’s motivational sphere - the main categories of needs that determine human behavior are identified and the relationships between them are established. The most famous content theories of motivation include those of Maslow, Alderfer, Herzberg, Atkinson and McClelland.

2.1. Hierarchy of needs by A. Maslow.

Investigating human behavior, Abraham Maslow noted that people are driven by the desire to satisfy a large number of needs. “The peculiarity of man is that throughout his life he desires something,” wrote Maslow. Maslow identified the following groups of needs:

1. Basic physiological needs are the natural needs of a person for food, air, a roof over his head, as well as other needs of the body related to maintaining life and prolonging the race. These needs form the foundation of the entire motivational-need sphere of a person. Their satisfaction is necessary to maintain normal life activity, and therefore to perform work.

Sometimes, in the works of modern researchers, they are called biological needs. In relation to the work environment, these are the needs in wages, vacation, pensions, breaks, favorable working conditions, lighting, heating and ventilation.

2. Security needs.

These include the need for protection from physical, social and

psychological danger. This also includes the desire for confidence in the future.

Once physiological needs are satisfied, the need for safety comes to the fore. In organizations, these needs take the form of employee struggles for job security, seniority systems, unionization, safe working conditions, fringe benefits, insurance, and severance pay..

3.Social needs

Once physiological and safety needs have been satisfied, the person's attention shifts to the need for friendship, love, and belonging. As “social animals,” people have a desire to be liked by others and want to satisfy their social needs at work. This occurs by joining formal and informal work groups, by collaborating with other workers, and by participating in a variety of collaborative activities.

4.Needs for appreciation and respect

This group of needs falls into two interrelated categories: self-esteem and respect from other people. In any organization, rewards that can satisfy the need for esteem include honorary titles, other forms of recognition, praise, additional responsibilities, and promotions.

5.Needs for self-realization.

Maslow's theory states that individual needs influence behavior according to two basic principles:

The principle of scarcity. A satisfied need does not motivate; people's actions are aimed at realizing unmet needs. “Man is an unsatisfied being; he rarely achieves a state of complete satisfaction, except for a short time. As soon as one desire is satisfied, another takes its place.

When this is satisfied, the next comes to the fore,” wrote Maslow.

The principle of priority. People always want more, and what they want depends on what they already have. Maslow also noticed that some needs are more important than others, and tried to identify the order in which various needs are “turned on.”

The listed five categories of needs are realized, according to Maslow, in a fairly strict hierarchical order (Figure 1): Picture 1

. Hierarchical model

Need

A. Maslow's needs.

in self-realization

Need in

appreciation and respect

self-esteem, respect

others, recognition of achievements

Social needs

group membership, friendship, love,

affection, approval

Security needs

reliability, protection from physical and

psychological danger

Basic physiological needs

air, food, water, roof over your head, etc.

higher-level needs are activated and begin to determine behavior only when the needs of lower levels are satisfied. At the same time, the needs associated with self-esteem, a sense of self-worth, significance and competence occupy a higher place in the hierarchy of needs: the needs for respect, praise and recognition from other people - a lower place.

The need for self-realization stands apart. On the one hand, this is the highest need, and not every person reaches such a level of development when the need for self-realization begins to dominate in his life. On the other hand, the principle of priority does not apply to it -

Familiarity with A. Maslow's theory of motivation allows managers to go beyond traditional methods of stimulating labor - remuneration, benefits, improving working conditions, and more. It is important for a manager to see that the zeal or passivity of subordinates in carrying out the tasks assigned to him is also largely determined by the extent to which conditions at work have been created to satisfy their social needs, needs for assessment and respect, and the need for self-realization.

The difficulties in applying A. Maslow's hierarchy of needs model are that it cannot be used as the only model for the entire organization. Not all employees feel the need to express themselves. Moreover, it is assumed that only about 3-5% of the total number of employees in an organization may have a dominant need for self-expression. In addition, it is quite difficult to find a person whose needs, in order of importance, are arranged into a harmonious system of subordination proposed by A. Maslow. This is more of a theoretical model than a practical one. Conditions that motivate some may be neutral or insignificant for others. For example, one employee would like to be declared the best in the department, while another would be happy to receive an invitation to celebrate the birthday of his manager, celebrated in a narrow circle.

2.2. Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory.

At the turn of the 1950s and 60s, Frederick Herzberg, together with a number of his colleagues, conducted a study to find out what factors that have a motivating and demotivating effect on human behavior cause his satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Two hundred engineers and accountants were involved in the study. They were all asked two questions: “Can you describe in detail a time when you feel exceptionally good at work?” and “Can you describe in detail when you feel exceptionally bad at work?”

Herzberg found two clearly distinguishable groups of needs in the responses. The first one he calledhygienic factors or supporting factors. The process of “dissatisfaction - lack of satisfaction” is determined by the influence of factors mainly related to the environment in which work is carried out. These are external factors. Their certain condition causes a feeling of dissatisfaction among workers. At the same time, the “favorable” state of the factors in this group does not necessarily cause a state of satisfaction. In management literature they are usually called “health factors,” as if to emphasize that these factors create normal healthy working conditions. “Health factors” include company and administration policies, relationships with superiors, working conditions, wages, relationships with colleagues, personal life, status and security. One of the most paradoxical conclusions that Herzberg made from the analysis of “health factors” was the conclusion that wages are not a motivating factor.

Herzberg called the second group of factorsmotivators or satisfiers. These are working conditions under which a high level of employee motivation and job satisfaction is achieved. In the absence of these conditions, it is impossible to obtain either effective motivation or satisfaction. Motivators include goal achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, career advancement, and opportunities for personal growth. If these needs are satisfied, then the person experiences satisfaction. And since they can lead to satisfaction, they play a motivating role.

So, Herzberg's work provides evidence that there are two completely different types of factors that can cause desired goal-directed behavior:

Hygiene factors, at best, can produce only a satisfactory level of motivation.

Motivators can be used to stimulate higher levels of motivation if hygiene needs, in turn, are sufficiently satisfied.

The main implication of the two-factor theory is that managers must be very careful not to emphasize hygiene factors as primary ones when satisfying needs when lower-level needs have already been sufficiently satisfied. Conversely, managers should not waste time and money offering their employees various motivators before hygiene needs are satisfied.

Difficulties in applying the two-phase model are associated with the fact that hygiene factors often act for employees as stimulating their professional activity as motivational factors. We can say that in Russian conditions such a classification is not justified: all of the listed factors often act as motivational ones. For example, many employees cite a comfortable office, convenient location, no need to rush to work in inconvenient transport conditions, the availability of free corporate transport, and the like as conditions that increase their efficiency.

2 . 3 McClelland's theory of motivation.

In his theory, David McClelland argues that any organization offers a person opportunities to satisfy three higher-level needs: the need for power, for success and for belonging. His most popular ideas are that the need for success has a positive effect not only on the work of employees, but also on the work of managers at all levels of management.

The need for power and achieving goals is expressed in the desire to achieve set goals, the ability to set them and take responsibility for their implementation. According to Maslow's theory, this need is also somewhere in the middle between the needs for esteem and self-expression. This need is satisfied not by proclaiming the success of this person, which only confirms his status, but by the process of bringing the work to a successful completion. People with a high need for power take moderate risks, like situations in which they can take personal responsibility for finding a solution to a problem, and want specific rewards for the results they achieve. McClelland writes about this: “It doesn’t matter how developed a person’s need for success is. He may never succeed unless he has the opportunity to do so, unless his organization gives him enough initiative and rewards him for what he does.” That is, if you want to motivate people with a need for success, they should be given tasks with a moderate degree of risk or the possibility of failure, delegate them sufficient authority to unleash the initiative in solving the tasks, and regularly and in a certain way reward them in accordance with the results achieved.

The need for belonging is manifested in a person’s desire for love, affection, and friendly relations with others. Motivation based on this need is similar to the motivation in the social needs theory of A. Maslow. People with this need are often interested in being in the company of familiar people, establishing friendly relationships, and helping other people. People with a developed need for affiliation may be attracted to types of work activities that will provide them with extensive opportunities for social communication. Managers interested in the productive work of such people must maintain an atmosphere that does not limit interpersonal relationships and contacts. The manager can also ensure that their needs are met by devoting more time to them and periodically bringing such people together in a certain group, for example, to discuss some problem facing the organization.

The main difficulty in applying McClelland's theory is to find methods by which one can identify the leading needs of certain employees. If an error is made in the evaluation of employees and the motivating factor is chosen incorrectly, instead of motivation and increased efficiency, demotivation will occur and the employee’s productivity will decrease.

2.4. Alderfer's theory

Like Maslow, Clayton Alderfer bases his theory on the fact that needs can be grouped into separate groups. However, unlike Maslow, he believes that there are three such groups of needs: existence needs;

The needs groups of this theory quite clearly correlate with the needs groups of Maslow’s theory. Existence needs seem to include two groups of needs in Maslow’s pyramid: safety needs, with the exception of group safety, and physiological needs. The group of communication needs clearly corresponds to the group of needs of belonging and involvement. The need for connection, according to Alderfer, reflects the social nature of a person, a person’s desire to be a member of a family, to have colleagues, friends, enemies, superiors and subordinates. Therefore, this group can also include part of the needs for recognition and self-affirmation from Maslow’s pyramid, which are associated with a person’s desire to occupy a certain position in the world around him, as well as that part of the security needs of Maslow’s pyramid, which are associated with group security. Growth needs include those group needs for recognition and self-affirmation that are associated with the desire to develop confidence and self-improvement (Figure 2). These three groups of needs, as in Maslow's theory, are located hierarchically. However, there is one fundamental difference between the theories of Maslow and Alderfer, which is that, according to Maslow, there is a movement from need to need only from the bottom up. Satisfied the needs of the lower level, moved on to the next one, and so on. Alderfer believes that the movement goes both ways. Up if a lower level need is satisfied, and down if a higher level need is not satisfied. At

Figure 2 . The relationship between Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Alderfer's theory.

Self-expression

Recognition and involvement

Height

Belonging and involvement

Connection

Security

Physiological needs

Existence

In this case, Alderfer believes that in case of unsatisfaction of a need at a higher level, the degree of action of a need at a lower level increases, which switches a person’s attention to this level. For example, if a person was unable to satisfy the needs of growth, his communication needs “turn on” again, and this causes a process of regression from the upper level of needs to the lower. According to Alderfer's theory, the hierarchy of needs reflects an ascent from more specific to less specific needs. He believes that every time a need is not satisfied, there is a switch to a more specific need. And this process determines the presence of reverse motion from top to bottom.

Alderfer calls the process of moving up the levels of needs the process of satisfying needs, and the process of moving down the process of frustration, i.e. defeat in the effort to satisfy a need.

The presence of two directions of movement in satisfying needs opens up additional opportunities for motivating people in the organization. For example, if an organization does not have sufficient opportunities to satisfy a person's need for growth, then, having become frustrated, he may switch with increased interest to the need for connection. And in this case, the organization will be able to provide him with opportunities to satisfy this need, thereby increasing the potential for motivating this person.

Alderfer's theory is relatively young and has a fairly small amount of empirical evidence of its correctness. However, nevertheless, knowledge of this theory is useful for management practice, since it opens up prospects for managers to search for effective forms of motivation that correlate with a lower level of needs if it is not possible to create conditions to satisfy high-level needs (Figure 3).

Growth needs

backtracking down the hierarchy

Alderfer's needs

Communication needs

Existence needs

Chapter 3. Process theories of motivation.

In addition to substantive theories, there are also procedural theories. They talk about how the motivation process is built and how people can be motivated to achieve the desired results. They analyze how a person distributes efforts to achieve goals and chooses the type of behavior in the process of their implementation. According to these theories, an individual's behavior is also a function of his perceptions and expectations associated with a given situation, and the possible consequences of his chosen type of behavior.

3 . 1 Expectancy theory

Most modern process theories of motivation considermotivation as a process of choice management.This definition of motivation was first given by Victor Vroom. He argued that people are constantly in a state of motivation. Thus, according to Vroom, in order to be a successful manager, it is necessary to show subordinates that directing their efforts towards achieving the goals of the organization will lead to the speedy achievement of their personal goals. According to Vroom's expectancy theory, subordinates are most productive when they are confident that their expectations will be met in three areas:

1. expectations regarding “labor inputs - results” - this is the ratio between the effort expended and the results obtained;

2. expectations regarding “results-rewards” - these are expectations of a certain reward or encouragement in response to the level of results achieved;

3. The third factor that determines motivation in expectancy theory is the value of the incentive or reward received.

A. Expectations regarding labor inputs - results. When a person asks himself, “To what extent can I expect my efforts to produce the quantitative and qualitative results that my manager wants?” the answer is expressed in the term “input-output expectations.” The stronger the expectation that effort will lead to the desired result, the greater the likelihood that this person will qualitatively complete the task assigned to him.

B. Expectations regarding “work results - reward”. After an employee assesses the certainty that he can perform a given job successfully, he asks himself the question: “If I do this job properly, what kind of reward can I expect, is it consistent with the reward that I want to receive?” Uncertainty arises when a worker is forced to rely on others to deliver promised rewards. The stronger the worker's confidence that the manager will pay the reward he has been promised, the more likely the worker will be to diligently carry out the task given to him by the manager. In expectancy theory, this probability is called “outcome-reward expectations.”

Several factors play an important role in determining how confident a worker is that a manager will pay him. First, confidence increases if the manager's promises are clear and specific. Second, confidence increases if the worker knows that the manager actually has the authority to provide the desired reward.

B. Reward Value . Even if employees are confident that they can do the job their manager expects of them and that they will receive the rewards promised to them, they still ask themselves perhaps the most difficult question: “If I get the rewards I want,” , will it be valuable enough for me and will I be able to satisfy my basic needs with it? According to expectancy theory, the answer to this question lies in measuring the value of the reward.

The value of reward is the most important element of the theory of motivation and, unfortunately, is not always taken into account by managers.

The most “popular” problem that arises about the value of rewards is that people rarely devote enough time and attention to carefully assessing their needs. Moreover, since money can actually buy many things that can satisfy a variety of needs, subordinates very often become misled and begin to believe that money is the best reward. Such ideas lead to disappointment and dissatisfaction. Employees who try to gain job satisfaction solely through money often suffer from a lack of self-esteem and a feeling of not being used for their intelligence, skills, and abilities.

D. Valence. Maslow used the term "dominance" to define the general level of needs whose satisfaction will guide people's actions. But how can a manager determine which of the many rewards is currently a means of satisfying the needs of a particular subordinate? To answer this question, Vroom uses the term “valence” to define the strength of preference for a particular reward.

According to Vroom,Valence is a measure of value or priority.Reward valence is measured from highly positive (1.00) to strongly negative (-1.00). Although the concept of valence is quite abstract, it allows people to compare their needs. Based on general theoretical premises, Vroom built a model of expectancy theory.

The basis of the expectancy theory model is the four concepts listed above. A person's motivation is aimed at a combination of expectations, valued and valenced rewards that will provide the best satisfaction of needs.

Difficulties in applying expectancy theory are due to the fact that its implementation requires constant feedback from staff. It is necessary to find out in a timely manner what expectations the employees of the company or department have. It is necessary not only to make demands on employees, but also to find out how they evaluate the expenditure of their effort and time to complete production tasks and what reward they expect to receive.

It is important to consider the significant goals and values ​​of employees and the extent to which getting results at work contributes to the realization of these goals and values ​​as assessed by them. Such goals and values ​​may include the desire to establish one’s status in the eyes of family members, wealthy neighbors or colleagues, the purchase of prestigious and fashion items, and more.

3.2.Theory of justice .

Equity theory, popularized by J. Stacy Adams, posits that people subjectively determine the ratio of reward received to effort expended and then relate it to the rewards of other people doing similar work. This theory is based on the assertion that employees consider two fundamental assessments when determining the focus of their goal-directed behavior:

“What do I bring to the organization?” this contribution includes effort, experience, education, skills and training.

“What compensation will I receive, especially compared to other employees doing the same job?” Remuneration in this case can take a variety of forms: wages, additional benefits, bonuses, working conditions and status indicators.

When making these two assessments, a person mentally derives a certain ratio that characterizes the fairness of management towards him. A person feels that he is being treated fairly if the ratios of rewards to costs are equal.

Equity theory is perhaps the easiest to understand of all motivational models, and it has the greatest value for a manager who wants to understand the motivation of his subordinates. The old expression “Fool me once, shame on you, fool me twice, shame on me!” Particularly well suited to the relationship between manager and employees.

If the contribution exceeds the reward, the person feels dissatisfied, angry and believes that he was treated unfairly. If the reward exceeds the person's contribution to achieving the organization's goals, he experiences a feeling of guilt, because. believes he is “deceiving” his manager. Equity theorists believe that each of these two negative feelings affects motivation and causes a person to act in ways that restore a sense of fairness. This behavior means that the person either works less hard or puts in more effort to overcome feelings of guilt. Other workers who feel unfair treatment may try to change the behavior of their fellow workers in order to restore justice. Ultimately, employees may simply change their views about the relative value of contributions and rewards, either by consciously re-evaluating their original demands or by using a mental defense mechanism such as rationalization.

When applying the concept of justice in the practice of personnel motivation, one must remember that the principle of justice is very important for personnel, and many conflicts and contradictions arise precisely as a result of its violation. Given this circumstance, management needs to specifically explain why one employee’s salary was increased and another’s was not. With such an explanation, the manager is recommended to provide objective arguments in defense of his decision.

If the principle of fairness is nevertheless violated, constant work among subordinates is necessary, so that if the salary of one employee is increased, another employee after a certain time can also count on its increase, subject to effective work.

3.3.The theory of motivation by L. Porter - E. Lawler.

The comprehensive process theory of motivation, known as the Porter-Lawler model, is built on the basic elements of expectancy theory and equity theory. Two researchers, Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler, developed a model that included five variables: effort expended; perception; results; remuneration; level of satisfaction.

The content of the Porter-Lawler model boils down to the following: in order to achieve certain results and receive a worthy reward, a person expends effort depending on his abilities, experience and qualifications. In this case, the amount of effort is determined by the value of the reward. A person’s awareness of his role in the labor process has a significant impact on the results. As in the theory of goal setting, rewards can be internal (a feeling of satisfaction about the work performed, a sense of competence and self-affirmation) and external (increase in pay, bonus, gratitude from the manager, promotion). The perception of reward determines the level of satisfaction, which in turn will influence a person's future behavior.

Porter and Lawler, based on an analysis of the proposed model, concluded that productive work leads to satisfaction. This conclusion is fundamentally different from the positions taken by representatives of early theories of human relations, who believed that satisfied workers produce better results.

The merit of Porter and Lawler is that their theory made a major contribution to the understanding of motivation.

The difficulty in applying a comprehensive theory of motivation is that management is faced with the challenge of finding ways to present large tasks that have been completed. Recently, corporate books have become popular, where the history of the company from its establishment to the present is described in the form of text materials and photographs. All of these activities are aimed at relieving management stress of incompleteness by demonstrating how other major tasks in the company have been completed previously.

3.4.Douglas McGregor's theory of motivation.

Douglas McGregor analyzed the activities of the performer in the workplace and found that the manager can control the following parameters that determine the actions of the performer: the tasks that the subordinate receives; quality of task performance; time of receiving the task; expected task completion time; the means available to accomplish the task; the team in which the subordinate works; instructions received by a subordinate; convincing the subordinate that the task is feasible; convincing the subordinate of reward for successful work; the amount of remuneration for the work performed; the level of involvement of the subordinate in the range of work-related problems.

All these factors depend on the manager and, at the same time, to one degree or another influence the employee, determine the quality and intensity of his work. Douglas McGregor came to the conclusion that, based on these factors, it was possible to apply two different approaches to management, which he called "TheoryX" and "TheoryY».

“Theory Y” corresponds to a democratic management style and involves delegation of authority, improving relationships in the team, taking into account the appropriate motivation of performers and their psychological needs, and enriching the content of work.

Both theories have an equal right to exist, but, due to their polarity, are not found in their pure form in practice. As a rule, in real life there is a combination of different management styles.

McGregor's theories were developed in relation to an individual person. Further improvement of approaches to management was associated with the development of the organization as an open system, and the work of a person in a team was also considered. This led to the concept of a holistic approach to management, i.e. the need to take into account the entire range of production and social problems.

CONCLUSION.

In the context of the formation of new management mechanisms oriented towards a market economy, there is a need to work in a new way, taking into account the laws and requirements of the market, mastering a new type of economic behavior, adapting all aspects of production activity to the changing situation. In this regard, the contribution of each employee to the final results of the enterprise’s activities increases. One of the main tasks for enterprises of various forms of ownership is the search for effective methods of labor management that ensure the activation of the human factor. The decisive causal factor in people's performance is their motivation.

Currently, motivation plays a leading role. There are many different theories of personnel motivation, which sometimes contradict each other.

The theories discussed in this work show that today there is no one fundamental theory of motivation. Each theory has its own differences. However, these theories mainly consider the factors underlying motivation and pay little attention to the process of motivation itself. From this we can conclude that the organization’s personnel motivation system must take into account the elements of all the considered theories. Motivational actions should include both economic and moral satisfaction of the needs of personnel and the creation of conditions for the manifestation of the creative potential of employees and their self-realization.

Organizational managers should not look for ready-made recipes for motivating staff in these theories; having studied their main provisions for themselves, it is necessary to develop their own system of motivating staff. But at the same time, we must not forget that each specific enterprise must have its own specific program, which would take into account all the features of the company’s activities.

. In turn, the functioning of motivation systems and their development primarily depend on the employees of the management apparatus, on their qualifications, business qualities and other qualitative characteristics.

Currently, it is impossible to achieve success by ignoring the problem of staff motivation. Implementing labor incentive programs always requires large expenditures, but the results they can bring are much greater. Because employees are the main resource of any organization. The effectiveness of their work determines the result of the organization's activities.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abchuk.V.A.

“Management” // textbook - Soyuz publishing house, 2002.

Vershigora E.E. textbook “Management”, publishing house M.; INFRA-M 2007

Vikhansky O.S., Naumov A.I., textbook “Management”, 4th edition M.; Economist 2005

Polukarov V.L. “Fundamentals of Management” // textbook, Moscow 2008.

Samukina N.V., “Effective staff motivation with minimal financial costs.”, M.; Top 2006

Semenov A.K., Nabokov V.I., textbook “Fundamentals of Management”., M.; publishing and trading corporation "Dashkov and K" 2008

Ritchie.Sh., Martin P., textbook for universities “Motivation Management”, M.; Unity-Dana 2004

Motivation - one of the most important functions of management. It implies a system of factors (motivating forces) that contribute to the accomplishment of a specific task aimed at achieving the goals of the enterprise.

Motivation - the process of stimulating a person (employee, performer) or group of people to activities aimed at achieving the goals of organizations.

Motivation - a force that encourages action, a psychoenergetic potential that directs a person to a certain activity, to achieve a certain goal.

Motive - an internal urge (impulse) that forces a person to act in a certain way.

It is known that stimulating a person is directly related to the satisfaction of his various needs (physiological, spiritual, economic).

Need - the conscious absence of something, causing an urge to action. There are primary and secondary needs. The primary ones are genetically based, and the secondary ones are developed in the course of cognition and experience. Needs can be satisfied with rewards.

Rewards - this is what a person considers valuable to himself. Managers use extrinsic rewards (cash payouts, promotions) and intrinsic rewards obtained through the work itself (feeling of success).

The development of motivation theory began at the beginning of the 20th century. The following groups of theories of motivation are distinguished:

• meaningful theories (Maslow, Herzberg, McClelland, etc.);
• procedural theories (Vroom et al.);
• theories based on a person’s attitude to work (McGregor, Ouchi).

According to A. Maslow’s theory, there are five main types of needs:

• physiological needs (level 1);
• need for safety (level 2);
• social needs (level 3);
• need for respect and self-affirmation (level 4);
• need for self-expression (level 5).

Rice. 17. A. Maslow’s theory of needs

These needs form a hierarchical structure that determines human behavior, and the needs of the highest level do not motivate a person until the needs of the lower level are at least partially satisfied.

Maslow's theory is based on the following principles:

• needs are divided into primary and secondary and form a five-level hierarchical structure in which they are located in accordance with priority;
• human behavior is determined by the lowest unsatisfied need of the hierarchical structure;
• Once the need is satisfied, its motivating influence ceases.

Degree of satisfaction of needs (from what is desired) by level:

• - level 1 - 85%;
• - level 2 - 70%;
• - level 3 - 50%;
• - level 4 - 40%
• - level 5 - 10%.

Maslow's theory was further developed in the theories of McClelland and Herzberg.

In development of Maslow's classification, D. McClelland introduces the concepts of the needs of power, success and belonging (for example, to a certain class) or social needs.

From his point of view, today the needs of the highest order become most important, since the needs of the lower levels are usually satisfied.



Rice. 18. McClelland's theory

The theory of F. Herzberg is based on the following principles:

• needs are divided into hygienic (amount of payment, working conditions, interpersonal relationships, nature of control) and motivating factors (feeling of success, promotion, recognition, responsibility, growth of opportunities);
• the presence of hygiene factors only prevents the development of job dissatisfaction;
• to achieve motivation, it is necessary to ensure the influence of motivating factors;
• To effectively motivate subordinates, the manager himself must understand the essence of the work.



Rice. 19. Theory of F. Herzberg

Process theories of motivation.

The main contribution to the development of procedural theories was made by V. Vroom. His work is based on the theory of expectations, the essence of which is schematically reflected in Figure 19. This theory is based on the assumption that a person directs his efforts to achieve a goal only when he is confident in the high probability of satisfying his needs.

Each “block of expectations” in the diagram reflects the manager’s efforts to motivate the employee.

Process theories can also include theory of justice.



Rice. 20. Expectancy theory

It comes down to the fact that if a person considers his work to be undervalued, he will reduce the effort expended. The fairness of the assessment from the position of the employer and from the position of the employee may differ. In this case, labor rationing, i.e. estimating the effort required to complete a unit of work can resolve the equity issue.

The theory of justice in combination with the theory of expectations is presented in the Porter-Lowlery model. This theory is based on the idea that motivation is a function of needs, expectations and fairness of rewards. One of the most important conclusions of this theory is that productive work always leads to employee satisfaction.



Rice. 21. Porter-Lawlery model theory

According to McGregor's theory, the approach to motivation can be chosen based on a person's attitude towards work. There are two types of workers: X and Y.

Key Characteristics of a Type X Worker:

• by nature lazy, does not want to work;
• does not want to bear responsibility, avoids tension of nervous forces;
• not proactive unless pushed to do so.

Therefore, he must be forced to work through punishment or reward.

Key characteristics of a type Y employee:

• there is a natural need to work;
• strives for responsibility;
• creative person.

Therefore, he needs to be encouraged to work, and not forced.

In 1981, U. Ouchi developed the Z theory, according to which a person is neither type X nor type Y. He is type Z, that is, depending on the situation, a person behaves like X or like Y, respectively the method of motivation is also chosen.

Table 3 - Comparative characteristics of theory “X” and theory “Y”

Description by characteristics	Theory X	Theory "U"
1. The manager’s ideas about the person	People initially do not like to work and avoid work whenever possible. People have no ambition and avoid responsibility, preferring to be led What people want most is security Getting people to work requires coercion, control, and the threat of punishment.	Labor is a natural process. Under favorable conditions, people not only accept responsibility, but also strive for it If people accept the goals of the organization, then they will use self-management and self-control People have developed needs at higher levels The ability for creative problem solving is common in humans, the potential intelligence of the average person is underutilized
2. Leadership practice a) planning	Centralized distribution of tasks, sole determination of strategy and tactics goals	Encouraging subordinates to set goals in accordance with the organization's goals
b) organization	Clear structuring of tasks, powers are not delegated	High degree of decentralization of powers
d) control	Total, comprehensive	Self-control of subordinates during work, control of the manager upon completion
d) communication	Strict regulation of behavior	The leader acts as a liaison in the exchange of information
f) decision making	Denial of the right to freedom of decision-making by subordinates	Active participation of subordinates in decision making.
3. Use of power and influence	Psychological pressure, threat of punishment, power based on coercion	Persuasion and participation, power through positive reinforcement
4. Leadership style		Democratic

The theory of work attitudes by A. Gastev

This theory was developed in the 20s of the 20th century. She happens to be

a reflection of the enthusiasm of the Soviet people of that time (slogans, early implementation of the plan, socialist competitions).

To apply A. Gastev’s theory in practice, motives must be created that appeal to the highest human characteristics, such as enthusiasm, duty, conscience, and the spirit of competition.

Quality Circle Concept

The concept (the theory of defect-free labor motivation) was developed in 1962 in Tokyo. It is based on the principles of quality circles:

• activation of human behavior and intellectual activity when working in a group of people, and not independently;
• quantitative limitation on the number of circle workers (3-13 people);
• voluntariness of joining the circle;
• work directly at the workplace, in a familiar working environment and atmosphere;
• formulation of tasks and problems as an integral part of the activities of the production group;
• the principle of defect-free labor (“personal mark”, personal responsibility of the site, etc.);
• competitive nature of groups;
• the presence of a reward system;
• policy of mutual learning and knowledge enrichment.

Motivation system

The motivation system implements three main functions:

1. Motivation planning:

• identifying current needs;
• establishing a hierarchy of needs;
• analysis of changing needs;
• analysis of the relationship between needs and incentives;
• planning strategy and motivation goals;
• choosing a specific method of motivation.

2. Implementation of motivation:

• creating conditions that meet needs;
• providing remuneration for the required results;
• creating confidence in the employee to achieve their goals;
• creating the impression in the employee of the high value of the reward.

3. Management of motivational processes:

• motivation control;
• comparison of performance results with the required ones;
• adjustment of motivational incentives.

Common to all functions is the selection of personnel with a high level of internal motivation.

We bring to your attention magazines published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural Sciences"

Federal Agency for Education of the Russian Federation

Moscow State University of Technology and Management

Test in management

Is done by a student:

Kuzmina Margarita Vladimirovna

Faculty: TM

Form of study: Siberian Federal District

Specialty: 080401

Address: Vladimir region,

Kovrov, st. Lesnaya, 4, apt. 2

Moscow 2009




Exercise

Propose one of the motivational theories for achieving the goals of one of the divisions of your organization. Develop a system of motivational influences (economic and non-economic) for this unit.




Plan

2. Using the Porter-Lawler theory to achieve the organization's goals




1. Content and process theories of motivation

Motivation is one of the main functions of modern management, aimed at increasing the efficiency of the organization’s personnel.

The function of motivation is that it influences the workforce of an enterprise in the form of incentives for effective work, social influence, collective and individual incentive measures. These forms of influence activate the work of management bodies and increase the efficiency of the entire management system of the organization.

The process of motivation is very complex and ambiguous. There are a large number of different theories of motivation. The main thing in them is to find out exactly what needs the satisfaction prompts a person to take active action.

Various theories of motivation are divided into two groups: Psychoanalytic – procedural, which are considered more modern and are based primarily on how people behave, taking into account their perception and cognition. The main process theories are expectancy theory , theory of justice , Porter-Lawler model of motivation.

Let's look at each of the theories of motivation in more detail.

Maslow's theory

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory is based on the following premises:

1. People constantly feel some needs.

2. These needs can be combined into separate groups.

3. Groups of needs are in a hierarchical arrangement in relation to each other.

4. Needs, if they are not satisfied, prompt a person to action. Satisfied needs do not motivate people.

5. If one need is satisfied, then another need arises in its place.

6. Lower level needs require priority satisfaction.

7. needs of a higher level begin to actively influence a person after the needs of lower levels are generally satisfied.

8. Higher-level needs can be satisfied in more ways than lower-level needs.

According to Maslow's theory, there are the following groups of needs:

Physiological needs. At the lowest level of the hierarchy of needs are the physiological needs for drinking, food, and sleep. If they are not satisfied, they determine motivation regardless of whether higher order needs are also satisfied. If needs are adequately met, the next level of needs comes to the fore. If, after the transition, a person is faced with a situation in which physiological needs are no longer satisfied, but they again become the dominant motivation.

Need for security. Once physiological needs are satisfied, a person's predominant motivation becomes to ensure a safe situation. In an orderly society, security needs are satisfied for the majority of adults, but security is threatened by war, disease, disasters, crime waves, and unrest. A. Maslow interpreted some neuroses as attempts to guarantee a feeling of security. Compulsive and obsessive neurotics try to make life absolutely predictable, although this interferes with their functioning at higher levels.

Needs for belonging and love. After satisfying the physiological and safety needs, the next need that begins to dominate is the need for belonging and love. At this level, a person seeks love and friendship.

Need for self-esteem. Next in the hierarchy of needs is the need for self-esteem and respect from other people. Respect must be stable and firmly based. A reputation based on false premises does not satisfy this need. A. Maslow's hierarchical concept suggests that people who feel unloved will function at the third level of the hierarchy - on the needs of love and will not be motivated by the need for self-esteem.

If self-esteem needs are not met, the person feels inferior. If self-esteem needs are satisfied, then a person experiences self-confidence, self-worth, strength, ability and ability to be useful and in demand. Self-esteem needs are the highest of A. Maslow’s deficit motivations.

The first four levels of the hierarchy of needs can be considered as motivation and overcoming the feeling of scarcity.

Need for self-expression, that is, the need for the realization of one’s potential, for personal growth.

Maslow's concept has had a great influence on the development of management, but has several vulnerabilities:

1. Does not answer the question of what the nature of certain needs is.

2. There is not necessarily a strict following of one group of needs after another, and satisfying the top group of needs does not always lead to a weakening of their impact on motivation.

Alderfer's theory

A. Maslow's theory, which was criticized for insufficient confirmation in practice, was modified by Clayton Alderfer. In his theory, called ERG THEORY , There are three categories of needs:

1. EXISTENCE NEEDS - for physical health and well-being.

2. NEEDS FOR RELATIONSHIP, for satisfying relationships with other people.

3. GROWTH NEEDS are associated with the development of the individual’s internal potential, the desire for personal growth, and expansion of competencies.

This theory has several similarities with the theory of A. Maslow. Both provide a hierarchical structure of needs, and both assert that the individual moves sequentially to satisfy his needs.

K. Alderfer suggested that the progression between needs is more complex, namely, it is subject to principle of frustration - regression. According to it, if a high-level need cannot be satisfied, the individual may return to an already satisfied need of a lower level. This model assumes that people can move not only up but also down the hierarchy depending on their ability to satisfy needs.

McClelland's theory

McClelland believed that people have three needs: power, success and belonging.

The need for power is expressed as a desire to influence other people. Within Maslow's hierarchical structure, the need for power falls somewhere between the needs for esteem and self-expression. People with a need for power most often manifest themselves as outspoken and energetic people, not afraid of confrontation and seeking to defend their original positions. They are often good speakers and require increased attention from others. Management very often attracts people with a need for power, since it provides many opportunities to express and realize it.

People with a need for power are not necessarily power-hungry careerists in the negative and most commonly used meaning of these words.

The need for success also lies somewhere in between the need for esteem and the need for self-expression. This need is satisfied not by proclaiming the success of this person, which only confirms his status, but by the process of bringing the work to a successful completion. People with a high need for success take moderate risks, like situations in which they can take personal responsibility for finding a solution to a problem, and want specific rewards for the results they achieve.

Thus, if you want to motivate people with a need for success, you must assign them tasks with a moderate degree of risk or possibility of failure, delegate them sufficient authority to unleash initiative in solving the tasks, and regularly and specifically reward them in accordance with their achievements. results.

Motivation based on the need for affiliation according to McClelland is similar to motivation according to Maslow. Such people are interested in the company of acquaintances, establishing friendships, and helping others. People with a strong need for affiliation will be attracted to jobs that provide them with extensive social interaction. Their leader must maintain an atmosphere that does not limit interpersonal relationships and contacts. A leader can also ensure that their needs are met by spending more time with them and periodically bringing them together as a separate group.

Herzberg's two-factor theory

Frederick Herzberg conducted research to establish differences in the factors that lead to job satisfaction or dissatisfaction. He formulated a two-factor model of motivation. F. Herzberg established that a person’s satisfaction with his actions and dissatisfaction with them are two poles, between which lies the state and mood of a person. Depending on a person’s motivation, his mood changes, approaching one of the poles.

Modern theories of motivation are divided into meaningful And procedural.

Content theories of motivation are based on identifying people's needs and their role in motivation

Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory

Herzberg's theory of "motivational hygiene" (two-factor model)

McClelland's theory of acquired needs

Maslow's theory of needs

Abraham Maslow recognized that people have many different needs, but also believed that these needs can be divided into five main categories:

Physiological needs that are necessary for survival - the needs for food, water, shelter, rest and sexual needs.

Needs for security and confidence in the future- needs for protection from physical and psychological dangers from the outside world and confidence that physiological needs will be satisfied in the future. A manifestation of the need for security in the future is the purchase of an insurance policy or the search for a secure job with good prospects for retirement.

Social needs, sometimes called affiliation needs - a feeling of belonging to something or someone, a feeling of being accepted by others, feelings of social interaction, affection and support.

Esteem needs- needs for self-esteem, personal achievements, competence, respect from others, recognition.

Self-expression needs- the need to realize one’s potential and grow as an individual.

Maslow's system of needs is hierarchical, that is, the needs of lower levels require satisfaction and, therefore, influence human behavior before the needs of higher levels begin to affect motivation. At any given moment in time, a person will strive to satisfy the need that is more important or strong for him. Before the next level need becomes the most powerful determinant of human behavior, the lower level need must be satisfied.

Since with the development of a person as an individual his potential capabilities expand, the need for self-expression can never be fully satisfied. Therefore, the process of motivating behavior through needs is endless.

For example, a person experiencing hunger will first seek to find food and only after eating will try to build a shelter. Living in comfort and security, a person will first be motivated to activity by the need for social contacts, and then will begin to actively strive for respect from others. Only after a person feels inner satisfaction and respect from others will his most important needs begin to grow in accordance with his potential. But if the situation changes radically, then the most important needs can change dramatically.

In order for the next, higher level of the hierarchy of needs to begin to influence human behavior, it is not necessary to satisfy the need of the lower level completely. Thus, hierarchical levels are not discrete steps. For example, people usually begin to seek their place in a certain community long before their security needs are met or their physiological needs are fully satisfied. This point can be well illustrated by the great importance which rituals and social intercourse have for the primitive cultures of the Amazon jungle and parts of Africa, although famine and danger are always present there.

Application of Maslow's theory

In order to motivate a particular person, a leader must enable him to satisfy his most important needs through a course of action that contributes to the achievement of the goals of the entire organization. Not so long ago, managers could motivate subordinates almost exclusively only with economic incentives, since people's behavior was determined mainly by their needs at lower levels. Today, even people at the lowest levels of an organization's hierarchy are relatively high up in Maslow's hierarchy.

A leader must carefully observe his subordinates to decide what active needs drive them. Since these needs change over time, you cannot expect that motivation that works once will work effectively all the time.

Managers need to know what an employee's preferences are in the reward system, and what makes some of your subordinates refuse to work with others. Different people like different things, and if a leader wants to effectively motivate his subordinates, he must be sensitive to their individual needs.

The main criticism of Maslow's theory was that it failed to take into account individual differences in people.

For example, many people in modern Russia were so shocked by the “default” of 1998 that after that (although they managed to “get back on their feet”) their dominant need for security remains.

Methods for satisfying higher level needs


Social needs

Give employees jobs that allow them to communicate

Create a team spirit in the workplace

Hold periodic meetings with subordinates

Do not try to destroy informal groups that have arisen if they do not cause real damage to the organization.

Create conditions for social activity of members of the organization outside its framework

Esteem needs

Offer your subordinates more meaningful work

Provide them with positive feedback on the results achieved

Appreciate and reward the results achieved by subordinates

Involve subordinates in setting goals and making decisions

Delegate additional rights and powers to subordinates

Promote subordinates up the career ladder

Provide training and retraining that improves competency

Self-expression needs

Provide subordinates with training and development opportunities that enable them to reach their full potential.

Give your subordinates complex and important work that requires their full commitment

Encourage and develop creativity in subordinates


Herzberg's two-factor theory

Herzberg showed that people’s activities are influenced by 2 groups of factors, which he called hygienic and motivating.

Group of factors	Factors	Impact on people's activities
Hygienic (related to working conditions)	earnings, working conditions, relationships with other employees, administration activities	Even with complete satisfaction, they do not motivate to improve work efficiency
Motivating (related to the content of the work, with assessment of results by management)	feeling of success, career advancement, recognition from others, responsibility	Motivate to increase productivity, efficiency, quality of work

Hygiene factors do not motivate workers, but simply prevent the development of a feeling of job dissatisfaction.

Application of Herzberg's theory

In order to achieve motivation, the manager must ensure the presence of not only hygiene, but also motivating factors. Many organizations have attempted to implement these theoretical insights through job enrichment programs.

During the implementation of the labor “enrichment” program, the work is restructured and expanded so as to bring more satisfaction and rewards to its immediate performer. “Enrichment” of work is aimed at structuring work activity in such a way as to make the performer feel the complexity and significance of the task entrusted to him, independence in choosing decisions, the absence of monotony and routine operations, responsibility for the given task, the feeling that the person is performing separate and completely independent work . Among the several hundred companies that use job enrichment programs to eliminate the negative effects of fatigue and the associated decline in productivity are such large companies as American Airlines and Texas Instruments. Although the concept of work enrichment has been used very successfully in many situations, it is not suitable for motivating all people.

In order to use Herzberg's theory effectively, it is necessary to create a list of hygiene and, especially, motivating factors and give employees the opportunity to determine and indicate what they prefer.

The same factor can cause job satisfaction in one person and dissatisfaction in another, and vice versa. Thus, both hygiene and motivating factors can be a source of motivation, and this depends on the needs of specific people. Since different people have different needs, different factors will motivate different people.

For example, a person may love his job because he considers his colleagues to be friends and, by communicating with them, he satisfies his social needs. However, such a person may consider chatting with colleagues to be more important than doing the work assigned to him. Thus, although job satisfaction is high, productivity may be low.

Due to the fact that social needs play a very important role, the introduction of such motivating factors as increasing responsibility for the assigned task may not have a motivating effect and will not lead to increased productivity. This will be exactly the case, especially if other workers perceive the increase in the worker’s productivity as a violation of unspoken production standards.

McClelland's theory of acquired needs

It presents Maslow’s highest levels of needs in its own way, but without hierarchy. David McClelland believed that people have three inherent needs: power, success and belonging.

Need authorities expressed as a desire to influence other people. Within Maslow's hierarchical structure, the need for power falls somewhere between the needs for esteem and self-expression. People with a need for power most often show themselves as outspoken and energetic people who are not afraid of confrontation and strive to defend their original positions. They are often good speakers and require increased attention from others. Management very often attracts people with a need for power, since it provides many opportunities to express and realize it.

People with a need for power are not necessarily power-hungry careerists in the negative and most commonly used meaning of these words.

Need success also lies somewhere in between the need for esteem and the need for self-expression. This need is satisfied not by proclaiming the person's success, but by the process of bringing the work to a successful conclusion.

People with a high need for success take moderate risks, like situations in which they can take personal responsibility for finding a solution to a problem, and want specific rewards for the results they achieve.

Motivation based on need involvement according to McClelland, it is similar to motivation according to Maslow. Such people are interested in the company of acquaintances, establishing friendships, and helping others.

Application of McClelland's theory

People whose greatest need is authorities and there is no inclination towards adventurism or tyranny, and the main one is the need to demonstrate one’s influence, one must prepare in advance for occupying senior leadership positions.

To motivate people with a need success, you must assign them tasks with a moderate degree of risk or possibility of failure, delegate them sufficient authority to unleash initiative in solving the assigned tasks, and regularly and specifically reward them in accordance with the results achieved.

People with developed needs involvement will be attracted to work that will provide them with extensive opportunities for social interaction. Their leaders must maintain an atmosphere that does not limit interpersonal relationships and contacts. A leader can also ensure that their needs are met by spending more time with them and periodically bringing them together as a separate group.

Process theories of motivation are based on the fact that an individual’s behavior is determined not only by his needs, but also by his perception of the situation, expectations associated with it, taking into account his capabilities, and the consequences of the chosen type of behavior. As a result of their “comprehensive assessment”, a person makes a decision about active actions or inaction.

Vroom's expectancy theory

Adams theory of justice

Porter-Lawler theory

Vroom's expectancy theory

Victor Vroom believed that the presence of an active need is not the only necessary condition for motivating a person to achieve a certain goal. A person must also hope that the type of behavior he chooses will actually lead to satisfaction or the acquisition of what he wants.

Expectations can be considered as a given person's assessment of the likelihood of a certain event.

When analyzing motivation to work, expectancy theory emphasizes the importance of three relationships: labor costs - results; results - reward and valence (satisfaction with reward).

Expectations regarding labor inputs - results (3-P) is the relationship between the effort expended and the results obtained.

For example, a salesman might expect that if he calls 10 more people per week than usual, sales will increase by 15%.

If people feel that there is no direct connection between the effort expended and the results achieved, then, according to expectancy theory, motivation will weaken. A lack of communication may occur because the employee has poor self-esteem, because the employee is poorly trained or trained, or because the employee has not been given sufficient authority to perform the task at hand.

Expectations regarding results - rewards (R-V) there are expectations of a certain reward or encouragement in response to the level of results achieved.

For example, if sales increase by 15%, a traveling salesman can expect a 10% bonus.

In this case, as in the previous one, if a person does not feel a clear connection between the results achieved and the desired encouragement or reward, the motivation to work will weaken.

For example, if a salesman is confident that 10 additional calls per day will actually lead to an increase in sales by 15%, then he may not call if he believes that the likelihood of adequate compensation for the results achieved is quite small.

Similarly, if a person is confident that the results achieved will be rewarded, but with a reasonable amount of effort he cannot achieve these results, then motivation in this case will be weak.

Valence is the perceived degree of relative satisfaction or dissatisfaction resulting from receiving a particular reward. Because different people have different needs and desires for rewards, the specific reward offered in response to performance may not be of any value to them.

For example, a manager may receive a salary increase for work performed, while he was counting on a promotion or more interesting and complex work, or on a greater degree of respect and recognition of his merits.

If the valency is low, i.e. Since the value of the reward received for a person is not too great, then the theory of expectations predicts that the motivation to work will weaken in this case.

If the value of any of these three factors critical to determining motivation is small, then motivation will be weak and work results will be low.

The relationship between these factors can be expressed by the following formula:

Motivation = 3-R x R-V x Valence.

Application of Vroom's Expectancy Theory

The management of the organization must:

• Match the compensation offered to the needs of employees and align them. Quite often, rewards are offered before employees evaluate them.

For example, in one insurance company, to motivate agents, the company's management announced that those who fulfilled their plan would go with their wives to Hawaii for two weeks at the company's expense. Management was shocked when, after the program began, some of the top agents stopped following the plan. It turned out that the prospect of going to Hawaii, even for free, but with their wives, was not perceived by everyone as a reward.

• Establish a firm relationship between results achieved and rewards. In this regard, it is necessary to give rewards only for effective work.
• Set a high but realistic level of results expected from subordinates and convey to them that they can achieve them if they put in the effort. How employees assess their strengths largely depends on what management expects from them.

The relationship between superiors and subordinates is largely determined by what their superiors expect from them.

If a leader's level of expectations is high, subordinates' performance is likely to be excellent. If his expectations are not too high, then productivity will most likely be low. Everything happens as if there were a law that the performance of subordinates must meet the expectations of the boss.

It should be remembered that employees will be able to achieve the level of performance required to receive valuable rewards if the level of authority delegated to them and their professional skills are sufficient to complete the task.

Adams' theory of justice

Stacey Adams' equity theory postulates that people subjectively determine the ratio of reward received to effort expended and then relate it to the rewards of other people doing similar work. If the comparison shows imbalance and injustice, e.g. If a person believes that his colleague received more compensation for the same work, then he experiences psychological stress. As a result, it is necessary to motivate this employee, relieve tension and correct the imbalance to restore justice.

People can restore balance or a sense of fairness by either changing the level of effort expended or by attempting to change the level of reward received. Thus, those employees who feel they are underpaid compared to others may either work less intensively or seek higher compensation. Those employees who believe that they are overpaid will strive to maintain work intensity at the same level or even increase it. Research shows that typically when people feel they are underpaid, they work less hard. If they believe they are overpaid, they are less likely to change their behavior and activities.

Application of Adams' theory

Since the productivity of employees who perceive their compensation as unfair (due to the fact that someone else doing similar work is paid more) will decline, they need to be told and explained why this difference exists.

For example, it should be explained that a higher-paid colleague gets paid more because he has more experience, which allows him to produce more. If the difference in remuneration is due to differences in performance, then it is necessary to explain to employees who are paid less that when their performance reaches the level of their colleagues, they will receive the same increased remuneration.

Some organizations are trying to solve the problem of employees feeling that their work is being unfairly assessed by keeping payment amounts secret (issuing wages in envelopes). Unfortunately, this is not only technically difficult to do, but also makes people suspect injustice where there is none. In addition, if employees' earnings are kept secret, then (as follows from expectancy theory) the organization risks losing the positive motivational impact of salary increases associated with promotion.

Porter-Lawler theory

The theory of Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler includes elements of expectancy theory and equity theory. Their model includes five variables: effort, perception, results obtained, reward, and satisfaction. According to the Porter-Lawler model, the results achieved depend on the efforts made by the employee, his abilities and characteristics, as well as his awareness of his role. The level of effort exerted will be determined by the value of the reward and the degree of confidence that a given level of effort will actually entail a very specific level of reward.

Achieving the required level of performance may entail internal rewards, such as a sense of satisfaction from the work performed, a sense of competence and self-esteem, as well as external rewards, such as praise from a manager, bonus, promotion.

According to equity theory, people have their own assessment of the fairness of the rewards given for certain results. Satisfaction is the result of external and internal rewards, taking into account their fairness. Satisfaction is a measure of how valuable a reward actually is. This assessment will influence the person's perception of future situations.

Application of the Porter-Lawler theory

One of the most important conclusions of Porter and Lawler is that productive work leads to satisfaction. This is exactly the opposite of what most managers think about this. They are influenced by early theories of human relations, which believed that satisfaction leads to better performance at work or, in other words, that more satisfied workers perform better. In contrast, Porter and Lawler believe that a sense of accomplishment leads to satisfaction and appears to improve performance.

Research appears to support Porter and Lawler's view that high performance is a cause of overall satisfaction rather than a consequence of it.

The Porter-Lawler model has made major contributions to the understanding of motivation. She showed that motivation is not a simple element in the chain of cause and effect. This model also shows how important it is to integrate concepts such as effort, ability, results, rewards, satisfaction and perception within a single interconnected system.