Sanskrit- It is officially considered that this is an ancient Indian literary language that belongs to the Indian group of Indo-European languages. But you and I know that there were no Indo-European languages, just like there were no Indo-Europeans: Negroids lived in India, and whites lived in (Europe); there were no “zebra people”.
* In Rus' this language was called SAMSKRTA (samskrta), i.e. self-hidden. This special language was created for the new Vedic priests in India. Those. The x'Aryan Karuna has been simplified from 144 to 48, so that even if enemies steal the text, they will not be able to read it. Sanskrit is a priestly language, the language of worship.
* Literary - because a lot of ancient literature has been preserved on it, so it is considered literary.
Vedic language
In the 2nd millennium BC. The Aryan tribes came to the territory of Hindustan from the north and west; they spoke several closely related dialects: the Holy Russian language, the Rasen language, the Kh'Aryan language and the Da'Aryan language. Western dialects are believed to have formed the basis of the language reflected in the Vedas (the transcription was as follows: Veda), but this word is not Indian, but Slavic: VѣDA, i.e. B - wisdom, ѣ - given, D - good, A - created by the Gods. Veda means Sacred Knowledge. Therefore, some researchers also call this language Vedic or Vedic.
The Vedic language represents the earliest period of ancient Indian written heritage. Some scientists consider the time of its formation to be the 15th-10th centuries before modern chronology. In the Vedic language there are 4 collections called Samhita. In everyday life it is believed that the British were the first to tell the world about the existence of Sanskrit. Those. The Russians didn’t know this to the whole world, but kept it at home (they brought the Vedas there, that’s what the Vedas talk about), and the British began to tell the whole world. Those. when our troops left, we will say, because of the mess that Petrushka Romanov created, European scientists became acquainted with Sanskrit at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. In 1786, the founder of the Asiatic Society in Calcutta, William Jones, drew the attention of Europeans to the ancient Indian language and its similarity with the ancient languages of Europe.
“No matter how ancient Sanskrit is, it has an amazing structure. It is more perfect than the Greek, richer than the Latin, and more refined than either of them, and at the same time it bears such a close resemblance to the two languages, both in roots and grammatical forms, that it can be hardly an accident; this similarity is so great that not a single philologist who would study these languages could believe that they originated from a common source that no longer exists" - William Jones.
Well, he spoke like that, and we know that Sanskrit is based on, as they say now, Proto-Slavic appeared, and on the basis of this language Greek appeared, and then on the basis of this Latin was created. Therefore, the source still exists.
Since the 19th century, the systematic study of Sanskrit and the intensive development of the spiritual heritage of ancient India began. The latter was facilitated by a lot of work on translation into European languages and commentary on ancient Indian monuments of legal culture, excerpts from epic poems, including the famous Bhagavad Gita, or how the Hindus themselves read the “Bagavad Gita,” drama, prose, etc.
It is a significant fact that a rural school teacher in India read the Vimana Shastra, Vimana Purana, and back in 1868 he made a small vimana, a simple one, and flew over the village. When the British came running there: “How? What?" he has already taken it apart and says: here is the text in Sanskrit, take it, read it, do it, I can’t help you with anything. Those. what our people keep belongs to our people and those who brought, you have nothing to do with this. Therefore, the British began to study very persistently. But what was the problem of the British? Note that they no longer used figurative language (not Saxon runes, not Scottish runes, did not use Celtic runes, Welsh runes, i.e. the language of Wales or, as they say, Celtic writing). Those. they have already switched to a purely phonetic language, just as Esperanto was created in the twentieth century - an artificial language. So the Catholic Church also created an artificial language of worship for recording - Latin, and it also conveyed only phonemes, i.e. sound form. That's why the English found it very difficult to understand Sanskrit, they took it literally, i.e. as it is written, so we read. The only thing they took as a basis when studying it, in order to understand it, was simplified Sanskrit.
We have already written down that Sanskrit is the language of worship. Only male priests have the right to study and read ancient Sanskrit. But at the festivities on the hill, the girls danced, read, and sang ancient sacred texts. So, so that they could perform them, a simplified form of recording was compiled for them, so that they could learn to read in this simple form, and then sing. This simplified recording form, as if reproduction in singing, in dancing, when the girls on the hill (maiden on the mountain) received the name - Devanagari language. Those. If Sanskrit itself is figurative, then Devanagari is figurative-syllabic. In Sanskrit, each rune has its own image, and when another rune comes next, it affects the previous one and it turns out to be a different image; when a third rune is added, the image still changes. Therefore, let’s say if 50 people translate a text in Sanskrit, each will get their own translation, because everyone will see one of the images that Sanskrit carries. Those. 48 runes and 2 punctuation marks, they will, as it were, create 50 different translations, and they will all be correct, but in order to understand the full meaning, you need to combine all these 50 into one. And Devanagari is a simplified language, syllabic, i.e. Let's say: “K” is written alone, but reads like “KA”.
Samhita
Samhita– a term used to designate a number of sacred texts. Let's figure out what it means in Slavic.
* We see that both Sanskrit (samskrta) and Samhita (samhita) begin with “SAM” - i.e. independent.
* Next comes (h), its image means: sent down, as if given.
* Next comes Izhei (i) – Universal meaning.
* Then Firmly (t) and Gods (a).
Those. independent sent down (or given) Highest truth, approved by the Gods - samhita. But the English translated it simply as “Collection of Sacred Texts.” This collection, they believe, includes: Rig-Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda, Atharva-Veda.
1. Rig Veda(rgveda). We see “RiG” - here Izhe (i) as connecting, harmonious: R - rivering and G - speaking wisdom (Veda). RigVeda is Veda of Hymns, i.e. The wisdom of hymns. But we know from that hymns are an appeal to the Gods and glorification of the Light Divine World. Therefore, in the Slavic system, “RIG” means the Shining World. RigVeda - if we take the X’Aryan or Old Slovenian, it will mean Wisdom of the World of Radiances, i.e. The Shining World, which is known. And all our hymns are addressed to the Shining World - this includes space. Therefore, in the Slavic-Aryan Vedas, RigVeda is called the Wisdom of the World of Radiance. Here the English translated simply as “Veda of Hymns” or “Collection of Hymns (Addresses).”
2. Yajur Veda(ydjurveda) – i.e. "Collection of sacrificial spells."
3. Sama-Veda(samaveda) - i.e. it was the “Veda of Life”, life in various spheres. But for the Hindus the third collection was very large, and they divided it into two. Those. SamaVeda is “ Collection of melodies and sounds", i.e. like songs. You know, there is such an ancient Russian saying: “You can’t erase words from a song.” But this is in Rus', and the Indians threw it out, i.e. They created a separate collection of sounds (SamaVeda) and took out the texts themselves separately.
4 (3.2)
. And this 4th collection was called Atharva Veda(atharvaveda), i.e. Veda Atharvana is a priest of Fire. Otherwise it is called “Collection of spells and conspiracies.”
Etymology:
* AT is the originally (A) approved (T), and what was initially approved by us is England = Fire.
* Ha is a positive force.
* Rva – the river Vanami.
Those. “The Vanirs spoke how to conjure fire,” how to bring demands through fire, and so on, and this was Wisdom (Veda), hence the name Atharva-Veda. Vanir– these are the Kh’Aryans, i.e. Among the Kh'Arits there was a tribe, they kept their traditions, and the Ases kept theirs. Having lived in different places on Midgard-Earth, the Vanir seemed to isolate themselves, especially after the Great Cooling, and since foreign advisors arrived, sometimes there were even clashes.
Additional books
Those. ours brought 3 collections to the Hindus, and they made 4 out of 3, which are considered to be the main ancient texts. But ours came more than once, there were two Kharian campaigns, and then more priests came, taught and brought books, plus they wrote and taught there, i.e. additional books appeared, i.e. scrolls, tables, tablets.
1. Bharanas- but many write the opposite: not Divine (B) positive (HA), but insert a modified form - Brahmans (braxmana), i.e. Ha - positive and Ra - Divine radiance, and man - men. Those. Priestly books.
2. Aranyaki(aranyaka) - literally means: relating to Nature, to the forest or forest. Those. This Natural books. Let’s say one of the books of the Mahabharata (Great Controversy) was called “The Book of the Forest”.
3. Upanishads(upanisat) - think about it, when a person begged for something, for example, asked another for life, he said: “spare me.” To spare is to show your favor. And here “Upani” - i.e. fell. Fell with a request or sat down, i.e. fell below the level of the one to whom he addressed. Therefore, “Upanishads” meant - sitting down(they say: the student sat down next to the teacher, that is, the teacher stands and talks or sits on a hill, and the student sits down next to him and listens, he writes everything down). Therefore, the Upanishads, as they now say, are sacred, esoteric, hidden teachings, i.e. a set of texts crowning the religious and philosophical tradition of the Vedic period. Those. the period of the first Kharian campaigns, when ours brought them knowledge - this is the Vedic (Vedic) period when ours taught the Dravidians and Nagas a new culture without human sacrifices, without humiliation, where everyone through work and training received their own path of development, i.e. let us speak of the desire for a new life, i.e. to know what is beyond this life. And before that they didn’t know the way, so ours said about each of them: “ he is without jan", i.e. The Path of Spiritual Development (Path of Life) was called YAN, and those who did not have this path were said about him: “he is without YAN,” and only then philologists translated it as “monkey.”
4. Upa Veda(upaveda) - i.e. as if lower, fallen, complementing the Vedas. Those. 4 additions were created to the Vedas, among them the famous treatise on medicine Ayurveda(ayurveda) or “Veda of Health”, which many people are still studying, and there is a concept there of how to learn about a person’s illnesses by the glow of his aura, by his pulse, and so on. Each organ it emits has its own aura, its own glow.
Epic poems
From the middle of the 1st millennium BC. In the 3rd-4th centuries AD, Indian epic poems took shape. Those. almost 1000 years.
1. Mahabharata(mahabharata), i.e. literally: maha - great (from here it passed into Latin as maximum - max); bha – opposition; rata – army, army; those. “The Great Opposition to the Rati,” or as the Hindus decipher it more fully: “The Great Battle of the Descendants of Bharata.” Those. " Great Battle" But we understand that this happened then in India, although now many oriental researchers, studying the Mahabharata, say that everything in it describes the battle that took place in the area of the current Kursk Bulge, i.e. the same names of rivers, names of areas, etc. Those. that Great Battle took place, as they now say, on the Russian Plain.
2. Ramayana(ramayana) - the Ramayana is translated as “ Rama's Journey" But we know that “YANA” is the Path of Life, the Path of Spiritual Development, and not just wandering, vagrancy. Those. Yana is a meaningful path, in contrast to wandering, when a person wanders wherever he wants.
The ancient language of these poems is usually called epic Sanskrit. Epic monuments were associated with the genre of smrti, i.e. with the word “smriti” - measured certain orders. And when measured, certain orders are established, i.e. what we store we call it memory. The genre of smriti means memory, recollection.. Those. This is our legend. And note, everything is similar to the Russian language, i.e. when a person remembers something, even now he returns to the smriti genre, i.e. he narrates the memories: LOOK, i.e. It comes from me, and explains: look, I remembered this and that. Those. Previously, the texts seemed to be shortened. This is the genre of smriti, it includes legends when a person remembers, either he saw it himself, or someone conveyed it to him, told him. Hence Tradition- i.e. passed down from generation to generation.
3. Puranas(purāna). But it would be more correct not to Pu-rana, but to Pur-ana, i.e. "PUR" meant that which is beyond your perception; hence the “blizzard”, i.e. like a disappeared path. And here is the Divine instruction left. Therefore, the Puranas are translated as “ancient, old,” i.e. you didn’t see this because it was in ancient times. Those. The Puranas are " Collection of myths and legends" Myths and legends are not a literal primitive, but a figurative narrative, and they all have their own real prehistory, going back, as they would say now, to prehistoric times, i.e. what happened before the Torah appeared. But the Torah is taken literally by many, as it is said, do it, and myths and legends, i.e. what the Legs left behind was imagery about other Worlds. Or, let’s say, notice, we are still saying: two women at the market barked like dogs, fought like cats. Those. if this is translated into an image, two cat women with dog heads. Hence all kinds of legends about dog-headed people.
Prose, fables, stories
Most Sanskrit monuments were created in classical Sanskrit, the language of the 4th-6th centuries. This is literature of different genres: prose, collections of stories and fables. A variety of scientific literature in Sanskrit has been preserved: works on philosophy, treatises on ethics and the theory of drama.
1. Panchatantra- i.e. “Five Guides” (panca - five, tantra - guide).
2. Hitopadesha- translated as “Good Instruction”, this is a collection of fables in Sanskrit in prose and verse.
3. Shastras- collections of commandments, instructions on various branches of knowledge.
Etymology:
* Ш – commanded from above.
* AS – Aces.
* T – approved.
* RA – radiance.
Those. The radiance approved by the Asami as commanded from above. Therefore, these were collections of commandments and instructions.
4. Vaimanika Shastra and there is the Vaimanika Purana, i.e. one we will talk about piloting, the other about the construction of vimana or whiteman - vimanika.
And others.
Dravidian languages
Sanskrit, as a literary language, for many centuries coexisted and interacted with other Indian languages: with late Vedic, with Central Indian and Dravidian languages, i.e. languages of south India. But our Ancestors did not say “India”, they said “ Dravidia", i.e. land of Dravidians and Nagas. Those. Initially, Negroid peoples lived on the territory of India, the most numerous were the Dravidians and Nagas, hence the “Dravidian languages”.
Middle Indian languages are called: Pali(pāli) and prakrita(prakrta); “Prakrita” literally means raw, natural language, or as they say now, colloquial, folk. It was in these two languages that the teachings of the unorthodox philosophical systems of India were preached. Orthodoxy, translated from Greek, means unswerving adherence to the original origins, and neo means something new, i.e. as if a return to the original, when a new look was given to the old teaching, which was originally there. Let’s say now they say that before all over the world there was, and when there is a new look, a new return, this is already called neo-paganism. These are the unorthodox philosophical systems of India, preaching the teachings of Buddhism, and Buddhism, as a rule, was written in the Pali language and Jainism.
The Central Indian languages were inferior to Sanskrit, as the exponent of a more ancient and rich cultural tradition, and were subject to its powerful influence. Sanskrit seemed to influence these languages of ancient India. Sanskritization of Central Indian languages led to the creation Buddhist hybrid Sanskrit and Jain Sanskrit. Jainism is one of the religious teachings of India, which also spread throughout Southeast Asia. It’s the same as how the Proto-Slavic language was transformed in our country into a recording of the Russian language, Belarusian, Ukrainian, Czech, Slovenian, Serbian, Croatian, Polish.
They, like the forms of late Sanskrit, represent a phenomenon of pseudo-historical evolution of the language, i.e. They believe that they contributed to the changes. Sanskrit played an extremely important role in India as the language of cultural unity of the country. Until now, the study of Sanskrit is part of the traditional Indian education system. Sanskrit is used as the language of worship in Hindu temples, newspapers and magazines are published in Sanskrit, and scientists correspond in it. Sanskrit is recognized as the working language at scientific Sanskrit conferences. The literary scientific heritage in Sanskrit is carefully preserved, researched and republished by scientists of modern India.
O HE confirms that Sanskrit is the mother of all languages. The influence of this language has directly or indirectly spread to almost all languages of the planet (according to experts, it is about 97%). If you speak Sanskrit, you can easily learn any language in the world. The best and most efficient computer algorithms were created not in English, but in Sanskrit. Scientists in the USA, Germany and France are creating software for devices running in Sanskrit. At the end of 2021, several developments will be introduced to the world and some commands such as “send”, “receive”, “forward” will be written in the current Sanskrit.
The ancient language Sanskrit, which transformed the world several centuries ago, will soon become the language of the future, controlling bots and guiding devices. Sanskrit has several main advantages that delight scientists and linguists, some of them consider it a divine language - it is so pure and euphonious. Sanskrit also reveals some of the secret meanings of the hymns of the Vedas and Puranas - ancient Indian texts in this unique language.
Amazing facts of the past
The Vedas, written in Sanskrit, are the oldest in the world. They are believed to have remained unchanged in oral tradition for at least 2 million years. Modern scientists date the creation of the Vedas to 1500 BC. e., that is, “officially” their age is more than 3500 years. They have a maximum period of time between oral dissemination and written recording, which occurs in the 5th century AD. e.
Sanskrit texts cover a wide variety of subjects, ranging from spiritual treatises to literary works (poetry, drama, satire, history, epics, novels), scientific works on mathematics, linguistics, logic, botany, chemistry, medicine, as well as works of explanation subjects that are unclear to us - “raising elephants” or even “growing curved bamboo for palanquins.” The ancient Nalanda library contained the largest number of manuscripts on all subjects until it was looted and burned.
Sanskrit poetry is amazingly diverse and includes more than 100 written works and more than 600 oral works.
There are works of great complexity, including works that describe several events simultaneously through wordplay or use words that are several lines long.
Sanskrit is the mother tongue of most North Indian languages. Even the tendentious theorists of the pseudo-Aryan invasion, who ridiculed the Hindu texts, after studying it, recognized the influence of Sanskrit and accepted it as the source of all languages. The Indo-Aryan languages developed from the Middle Indo-Aryan languages, which in turn evolved from Proto-Aryan Sanskrit. Moreover, even the Dravidian languages (Telugu, Malyalam, Kannada and to some extent Tamil), which are not derived from Sanskrit, have borrowed such a large number of words from it that Sanskrit can be called their adopted mother.
The process of formation of new words in Sanskrit continued for a long time, until the great linguist Panini, who wrote the grammar, established the rules for the formation of each word, compiling a complete list of roots and nouns. After Panini some changes were made and they were streamlined by Vararuchi and Patanjali. Any violation of the rules laid down by them was considered a grammatical error, and therefore Sanskrit remained unchanged from the time of Patanjali (about 250 BC) to our times.
For a long time, Sanskrit was used mainly in the oral tradition. Before the advent of printing in India, Sanskrit did not have a single written alphabet. It was written in local alphabets, which included more than two dozen scripts. This is also an unusual phenomenon. The reasons for establishing Devanagari as the standard script are the influence of the Hindi language and the fact that many early Sanskrit texts were printed in Bombay, where Devanagari is the alphabet for the local Marathi language.
Of all the languages of the world, Sanskrit has the largest vocabulary, while it makes it possible to pronounce a sentence with a minimum number of words.
Sanskrit, like all literature written in it, is divided into two large sections: Vedic and classical. Vedic period, which began in 4000-3000 BC. BC, ended around 1100 AD. e.; classical began in 600 BC. and continues to this day. Vedic Sanskrit merged with classical Sanskrit over time. However, there remains a fairly large difference between them, although the phonetics are the same. Many old words were lost, many new ones appeared. Some word meanings have changed, and new phrases have emerged.
The sphere of influence of Sanskrit spread to all directions of Southeast Asia (now Laos, Cambodia and other countries) without military action or violent measures on the part of India.
The attention paid to Sanskrit in India (the study of grammar, phonetics, etc.) until the 20th century came, surprisingly, from outside. The success of modern comparative linguistics, the history of linguistics and, ultimately, linguistics in general has its origins in the fascination with Sanskrit by Western scholars such as A. N. Chomsky and P. Kiparsky.
Sanskrit is the scientific language of Hinduism, Buddhist teachings (together with Pali) and Jainism (second after Prakrit). It is difficult to classify it as a dead language: Sanskrit literature continues to flourish thanks to the novels, short stories, essays and epic poems that are written in this language. In the last 100 years, the authors have even been awarded some literary awards, including the esteemed Jnanpith in 2006. Sanskrit is the official language of the Indian state of Uttarakhand. Today, there are several Indian villages (in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Karnataka and Uttara Pradesh) where this language is still spoken. For example, in the village of Mathur in Karnataka, more than 90% of the population knows Sanskrit.
There are even newspapers in Sanskrit! Sudharma, printed in Mysore, has been published since 1970 and now has an electronic version.
There are currently about 30 million ancient Sanskrit texts in the world, 7 million of which are in India. This means that there are more texts in this language than Roman and Greek combined. Unfortunately, most of them have not been catalogued, and therefore a huge amount of work is required to digitize, translate and systematize the existing manuscripts.
Sanskrit in modern times
In Sanskrit the number system is called Katapayadi. She assigns a specific number to each letter of the alphabet; the same principle is inherent in the construction of an ASCII table. Drunvalo Melkizedek’s book “The Ancient Secret of the Flower of Life” gives an interesting fact. In the shloka (verse), the translation of which is: “O Lord Krishna, anointed with the yoghurt of thrush worship, O savior of the fallen, O Lord of Shiva, protect me!”, after applying the katapayadi, the number was 0.3141592653589793238462643383279. If you multiply it by 10, you get the number pi accurate to the thirty-first digit! It is clear that the probability of a simple coincidence of such a series of numbers is too unlikely.
Sanskrit enriches science by transmitting the knowledge contained in books such as the Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, Mahabharata, Ramayana and others. For this purpose, it is studied at the Russian State University and especially at NASA, which houses 60,000 palm leaves with manuscripts. NASA has declared Sanskrit to be the planet's "only unambiguous spoken language" suitable for running computers. The same idea was expressed back in July 1987 by Forbes magazine: “Sanskrit is the language most suitable for computers.”
NASA presented a report that America is creating 6th and 7th generation of computers based on Sanskrit. The completion date of the 6th generation project is 2025 and the 7th generation is 2034. After this, it is expected that there will be a boom in Sanskrit learning across the world.
There are universities in seventeen countries around the world that teach Sanskrit to acquire technological knowledge. In particular, a protection system based on the Indian Sri Chakra is being studied in the UK.
There is an interesting fact: learning Sanskrit improves mental activity and memory. Students who master this language begin to better understand mathematics and other sciences and receive improved grades in them. James Jr. School in London introduced the study of Sanskrit as a compulsory subject for her students, after which her students began to study better. Some schools in Ireland have followed suit.
Studies have shown that Sanskrit phonetics has a connection with the energy points of the body, so reading or pronouncing Sanskrit words stimulates them, increasing the energy of the whole body, thereby increasing the level of resistance to diseases, relaxing the mind and getting rid of stress. Moreover, Sanskrit is the only language that engages all the nerve endings in the tongue; when pronouncing words, the overall blood supply and, as a result, the functioning of the brain improves. This leads to better overall health, according to American Hindu University.
Sanskrit is the only language in the world that has existed for millions of years. Many languages descended from it died; many others will replace them, but he himself will remain unchanged.
231 years ago, on November 14, 1788, Mikhail Lazarev, a Russian naval commander and admiral, participant in several circumnavigations and other sea voyages, discoverer and explorer of Antarctica, was born in Vladimir.
Having gone through a long and difficult path from midshipman to admiral, Lazarev not only took part in the most key naval battles of the 19th century, but also did a lot to improve the coastal infrastructure of the fleet, stood at the origins of the establishment of the Admiralty and the founding of the Sevastopol Maritime Library.
The life path and exploits of M. P. Lazarev in the historical material of the Research Institute of Military History of the Academy of the General Staff of the Russian Armed Forces.
Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev devoted his entire life to serving the Russian Navy. He was born into the family of a nobleman, Senator Pyotr Gavrilovich Lazarev, who came from the nobility of the Arzamas district of the Nizhny Novgorod province, and was the middle of three brothers - the future Vice Admiral Andrei Petrovich Lazarev (born in 1787) and Rear Admiral Alexei Petrovich Lazarev (born in 1787). in 1793).
After the death of their father, in February 1800, the brothers were enrolled as ordinary cadets in the Naval Cadet Corps. In 1803, Mikhail Petrovich passed the exam for the title of midshipman, becoming the third best performer out of 32 students.
E.I. Botman. Portrait of Admiral Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev. 1873
In June of the same year, for further study of maritime affairs, he was assigned to the battleship Yaroslav, operating in the Baltic Sea. And two months later, together with the seven best-performing graduates, he was sent to England, where for five years he participated in voyages in the North and Mediterranean seas, in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans. In 1808, Lazarev returned to his homeland and passed the exam for the rank of midshipman.
During the Russian-Swedish War of 1808 -1809, Mikhail Petrovich was on the battleship "Grace", which was part of the flotilla of Vice Admiral P. I. Khlynov. During the fighting near the island of Gogland, the flotilla captured a brig and five Swedish transports.
While evading the superior English squadron, one of the ships - the battleship Vsevolod - ran aground. On August 15 (27), 1808, Lazarev and his crew on a lifeboat were sent to help. It was not possible to refloat the ship, and after a fierce boarding battle with the British, the Vsevolod was burned, and Lazarev and the crew were captured.
In May 1809 he returned to the Baltic Fleet. In 1811 he was promoted to lieutenant.
Mikhail Petrovich met the Patriotic War of 1812 on the 24-gun brig Phoenix, which, together with other ships, defended the Gulf of Riga, participated in the bombardment and landing in Danzig. For his bravery, Lazarev was awarded a silver medal.
After the end of the war, preparations began for a round-the-world trip to Russian America in the port of Kronstadt. The frigate Suvorov was chosen to participate in it, and in 1813 Lieutenant Lazarev was appointed its commander. The ship belonged to the Russian-American company, which was interested in regular sea communication between St. Petersburg and Russian America.
On October 9 (21), 1813, the ship left Kronstadt. Having overcome strong winds and dense fogs, passing through the Sound, Kattegat and Skagerrak straits (between Denmark and the Scandinavian Peninsula) and avoiding collisions with French and allied Danish ships, the frigate arrived in Portsmouth (England). After a three-month stop, the ship, passing along the coast of Africa, crossed the Atlantic and stopped for a month in Rio de Janeiro.
At the end of May 1814, "Suvorov" entered the Atlantic, crossed the Indian Ocean and on August 14 (26) entered Port Jackson (Australia), where he received the news of the final victory over Napoleon. Continuing her voyage across the Pacific Ocean, at the end of November the frigate arrived at the Novo-Arkhangelsk port, where the residence of the chief manager of Russian America, A. A. Baranov, was located.
During the voyage, on the approach to the equator, a group of coral islands was discovered, to which Lazarev gave the name “Suvorov”.
After wintering, the frigate made a trip to the Aleutian Islands, where it accepted a large cargo of furs for delivery to Kronstadt. At the end of July 1815, Suvorov left Novo-Arkhangelsk. Now his path lay along the coasts of North and South America, bypassing Cape Horn.
During the voyage, the frigate made a call at the Peruvian port of Callao, becoming the first Russian ship to visit Peru. Here Mikhail Petrovich successfully conducted the trade negotiations entrusted to him, receiving permission for Russian sailors to trade without any additional taxes.
Having rounded Cape Horn, the ship passed through the entire Atlantic Ocean and arrived in Kronstadt on July 15 (28), 1816. In addition to a large cargo of valuable furs, Peruvian animals were delivered to Europe - nine llamas, one each of a vigoni and an alpaca. The Suvorov spent 239 days under sail on the way from Kronstadt to Novo-Arkhangelsk, and 245 days on the way back.
Navigation route of M.P. Lazarev on the frigate "Suvorov" in 1813 - 1815.
At the beginning of 1819, Lazarev, already an experienced commander and navigator, received under his command the sloop Mirny, which was preparing for an expedition to the South Arctic Circle.
After two months of preparation, re-equipping the ships, covering the underwater part of the hull with copper sheets, selecting a crew and procuring provisions, the Mirny, together with the sloop Vostok (under the overall command of its commander, Lieutenant-Commander F.F. Bellingshausen), left the sea in July 1819. Kronstadt. Having made a stop in the capital of Brazil, the sloops headed to the island of South Georgia, nicknamed the “entrance gate” to Antarctica.
The voyage took place in difficult polar conditions: among icy mountains and large ice floes, with frequent storms and snowstorms, piles of floating ice that slowed down the movement of ships.
Thanks to the excellent knowledge of maritime affairs by Lazarev and Bellingshausen, the ships never lost sight of each other.
Making their way among the icebergs to the south, the sailors reached latitude 69° 23´5 on January 16 (30), 1820. This was the edge of the Antarctic continent, but the sailors did not fully realize their feat - the discovery of a sixth of the world.
Lazarev wrote in his diary:
On the sixteenth we reached latitude 69° 23´5, where we encountered ice of extreme height, extending as far as vision could reach. However, we did not enjoy this amazing spectacle for long, because soon it became cloudy again and, as usual, it began to snow... From here we continued our way to the island, attempting to go south whenever possible, but, not reaching 70°, we invariably encountered an icy continent.
After futile attempts to find a passage, the ship commanders, after consulting, decided to retreat and turned north. The crews of the sloops were in constant nervous tension, they were tormented by dampness and cold. Bellingshausen and Lazarev made every effort to ensure normal living conditions. The Vostok and Mirny headed to the Australian port of Jackson for the winter.
Swimming of F. F. Bellingshausen and M. P. Lazarev in 1819 - 1821.
On May 8 (20), 1820, the repaired ships headed to the shores of New Zealand, where for three months they plowed the waters of the little-studied southeastern region of the Pacific Ocean, discovering a number of islands. In September, the ships returned to Australia, and two months later they headed again to Antarctica.
During the second voyage, the sailors managed to discover the island of Peter I and the coast of Alexander I, which completed their research work in Antarctica.
Thus, Russian sailors were the first in the world to discover a new part of the world - Antarctica, refuting the opinion of the English traveler James Cook, who argued that there is no continent in the southern latitudes, and if it exists, it is only near the pole, in areas inaccessible for navigation.
The ships were on the voyage for 751 days, 527 of them under sail, and covered over 50 thousand miles. The expedition discovered 29 islands, including a group of coral islands named after the heroes of the Patriotic War of 1812 - M. I. Kutuzov, M. B. Barclay de Tolly, P. H. Wittgenstein, A. P. Ermolov, N. N. Raevsky, M. A. Miloradovich, S. G. Volkonsky.
For his successful voyage, Lazarev, bypassing the rank of captain-lieutenant, was promoted to captain of the 2nd rank.
The sloops “Vostok” and “Mirny”. Artist Yu. Sorokin
In March 1822, M.P. Lazarev was appointed commander of the newly built 36-gun frigate "Cruiser".
At this time, the situation in Russian America worsened; American industrialists predatorily exterminated valuable fur-bearing animals in our possessions. It was decided to send the frigate "Cruiser" and the sloop "Ladoga", commanded by his older brother Andrei, to distant shores. In August of the same year, the ships left the Kronstadt roadstead.
After stopping in Tahiti, each ship went on its own course, “Ladoga” - to the Kamchatka Peninsula, “Cruiser” - to the shores of Russian America. For about a year, the frigate guarded Russian territorial waters from smugglers. In the summer of 1824, it was replaced by the sloop "Enterprise", and the "Cruiser" left Novo-Arkhangelsk. In August 1825, the frigate arrived in Kronstadt.
For exemplary performance of the task, Lazarev was promoted to captain 1st rank and awarded the Order of Vladimir, III degree.
At the beginning of 1826, Mikhail Petrovich was appointed commander of the battleship Azov, which was being built in Arkhangelsk, at that time the most advanced ship in the Russian navy.
The commander carefully selected his crew, which included Lieutenant P. S. Nakhimov, Midshipman V. A. Kornilov and Midshipman V. I. Istomin - the future leaders of the defense of Sevastopol.
His influence on his subordinates was limitless; Nakhimov wrote to a friend:
It’s worth listening, my dear, to how everyone here treats the captain, how they love him!... Really, the Russian fleet has never had such a captain.
Upon the ship's arrival in Kronstadt, it entered service with the Baltic squadron. Here Mikhail Petrovich had the opportunity to serve for some time under the command of the famous Russian admiral D. N. Senyavin.
In 1827, Lazarev was appointed concurrently chief of staff of the squadron, which was being equipped for a trip to the Mediterranean Sea. In the summer of the same year, the squadron under the command of Rear Admiral L.P. Heyden entered the Mediterranean Sea and united with the French and English squadrons.
Command of the combined fleet was taken over by British Vice Admiral Edward Codrington, a student of Admiral Nelson, and consisted of 27 ships (11 English, seven French and nine Russian) with 1.3 thousand guns. The Turkish-Egyptian fleet consisted of over 50 ships with 2.3 thousand guns. In addition, the enemy had coastal batteries on the island of Sphacteria and in the Navarino fortress.
On October 8 (20), 1827, the famous Battle of Navarino took place. Azov was in the center of a curved battle line of four battleships. It was here that the Turks directed their main attack.
The battleship Azov had to fight simultaneously with five Turkish ships; with artillery fire it sank two large frigates and a corvette, burned the flagship under the flag of Tagir Pasha, forced an 80-gun battleship to run aground, and then set it on fire and exploded.
In addition, a ship under the command of Lazarev destroyed the flagship of Muharrem Bey.
At the end of the battle at Azov, all the masts were broken, the sides were broken, and 153 holes were counted in the hull. Despite such serious damage, the ship continued to fight until the last minute of the battle.
Russian ships bore the brunt of the battle and played a major role in the defeat of the Turkish-Egyptian fleet. The enemy lost a battleship, 13 frigates, 17 corvettes, four brigs, five fire ships and other ships.
For the Battle of Navarino, the battleship Azov, for the first time in the Russian fleet, was awarded the highest award - the stern St. George's flag.
Lazarev was promoted to rear admiral and awarded three orders at once: the Greek - Commander's Cross of the Savior, the English - Bath and the French - St. Louis.
Subsequently, Mikhail Petrovich, being the chief of staff of the squadron, cruised in the Archipelago and participated in the blockade of the Dardanelles, cutting off the Turks’ path to Constantinople.
"Battle of Navarino" Artist I. Aivazovsky
Since 1830, Lazarev commanded a brigade of ships of the Baltic Fleet, in 1832 he was appointed chief of staff of the Black Sea Fleet, and the following year - commander of the fleet, governor of Nikolaev and Sevastopol. Mikhail Petrovich held this post for 18 years.
Already at the beginning of 1833, Lazarev led the successful campaign of the Russian fleet and the transfer of 10,000 troops to the Bosphorus, as a result of which an attempt to capture Istanbul by the Egyptians was prevented. Russian military assistance forced Sultan Mahmud II to conclude the Treaty of Unkiar-Iskelesi, which greatly raised the prestige of Russia.
Russia's consolidation in the Caucasus was viewed with particular hostility by England, which sought to turn the Caucasus with its rich natural resources into its colony.
For these purposes, with the active support of England, a movement of groups of religious fanatics (muridism) was organized, one of the main slogans of which was the annexation of the Caucasus to Turkey.
To disrupt the plans of the British and Turks, the Black Sea Fleet needed to block the Caucasian coast. For this purpose, for operations off the coast of the Caucasus, Lazarev allocated a detachment, and later a squadron of the Black Sea Fleet, consisting of six armed ships. In 1838, a place was chosen to base the squadron at the mouth of the Tsemes River, which marked the beginning of the construction of the Novorossiysk port.
In 1838-1840, troops of General N.N. Raevsky (junior) were landed from the ships of the Black Sea Fleet with the direct participation of Lazarev, who cleared the enemy from the coast and the mouths of the Tuapse, Subashi and Pazuape rivers, on the banks of the latter a fort was built named after Lazarev . The successful activities of the Black Sea Fleet prevented the implementation of the aggressive plans of the British and Turks in the Caucasus.
Lazarev was the first to organize a two-year expedition of the frigate “Skory” and the tender “Pospeshny” with the aim of describing the Black Sea, which resulted in the publication of the first pilotage of the Black Sea.
Under the personal supervision of Lazarev, plans were drawn up and the area was prepared for the construction of the Admiralty in Sevastopol, and docks were built. In the Hydrographic Depot, reorganized on his instructions, many maps, sailing directions, regulations, manuals were printed and a detailed atlas of the Black Sea was published.
Under the leadership of Mikhail Petrovich, the Black Sea Fleet became the best in Russia. Serious successes were achieved in shipbuilding; he personally supervised the construction of each ship.
Under Lazarev, the number of ships of the Black Sea Fleet was brought to a full complement, and naval artillery was improved. The Admiralty was built in Nikolaev, taking into account all the technological advances of that time, and construction of the Admiralty began near Novorossiysk.
M.P. Lazarev understood perfectly well that the sailing fleet was becoming obsolete and should be replaced by a steam fleet. However, technological backwardness did not allow Russia to make such a transition at a rapid pace.
Lazarev made every effort to ensure that steamships appeared in the Black Sea Fleet. He achieves this by ordering the construction of iron steam ships with all the latest improvements. Preparations were made for the construction in Nikolaev of the screw-driven 131-gun battleship "Bosphorus" (laid down after Lazarev's death in 1852).
In 1842, Mikhail Petrovich obtained orders for the construction by shipyards for the Black Sea Fleet of five steam frigates “Khersones”, “Bessarabia”, “Crimea”, “Gromonosets” and “Odessa”.
In 1846, he sent his closest assistant, Captain 1st Rank Kornilov, to the English shipyards to directly supervise the construction of four steamships: Vladimir, Elbrus, Yenikale and Taman. All ships were built according to Russian designs and draft drawings.
Lazarev paid a lot of attention to the cultural growth of sailors. According to his instructions and under his leadership, the Sevastopol Maritime Library was reorganized and the Assembly House was built, as well as many other public and cultural institutions.
The admiral attached great importance to the defensive structures of Sevastopol, increasing the number of guns defending the city to 734 units.
The Lazarev school was harsh; working with the admiral was sometimes difficult. However, those sailors in whom he managed to awaken the living spark that lived in himself became true Lazarevites.
Mikhail Petrovich trained such outstanding sailors as Nakhimov, Putyatin, Kornilov, Unkovsky, Istomin and Butakov. Lazarev's great merit lies in the fact that he trained a cadre of sailors who ensured the transition of the Russian fleet from sailing to steam.
The admiral always cared little about his health. However, at the end of 1850, the pain in his stomach intensified, and on the personal instructions of Nicholas I, he was sent to Vienna for treatment. The disease was very advanced, and local surgeons refused to operate on him. On the night of April 11 (23), 1851, at the age of 63, Lazarev died of stomach cancer.
His ashes were transported to Russia and interred in Sevastopol in the Vladimir Cathedral. In the basement of this cathedral in the form of a cross, with their heads towards the center of the cross, M. P. Lazarev, P. S. Nakhimov, V. A. Kornilov and V. I. Istomin were buried.
Burial place of Admiral M.P. Lazarev in the Vladimir Cathedral, Sevastopol.
In 1867, in this city, then still in ruins after the Crimean War of 1853–1856, the grand opening of the monument to M.P. Lazarev took place. At the opening, Rear Admiral of the Suite I.A. Shestakov gave a brilliant speech, in which he vividly outlined the merits of the famous admiral in creating the Russian fleet and nurturing the high qualities of Russian sailors.
The geographical discoveries made by M. P. Lazarev are of world-historical significance. They are part of the golden fund of Russian science. Mikhail Petrovich was elected an honorary member of the Geographical Society.
The St. Petersburg Maritime Assembly, in memory of the remarkable Russian admiral M.P. Lazarev, established a silver medal in 1995, which is awarded to workers of the sea, river and fishing fleets, educational institutions, research institutes and other naval organizations who have made a great contribution to the cause development of the fleet, who have completed significant voyages, as well as taking a significant part in the creation of equipment for the fleet and who were previously awarded the golden badge of the Maritime Assembly.
The Russian people lovingly preserve the memory of the outstanding Russian admiral, deservedly placing him among the best naval commanders of our Motherland.
Medal of M. P. Lazarev of the St. Petersburg Maritime Assembly
The Sanskrit language is an ancient literary language that existed in India. It has a complex grammar and is considered the progenitor of many modern languages. Literally translated, this word means “perfect” or “processed.” It has the status of the language of Hinduism and some other cults.
Spread of language
The Sanskrit language was originally predominantly spoken in the northern part of India, being one of the languages for rock inscriptions dating back to the 1st century BC. Interestingly, researchers view it not as the language of a specific people, but as a specific culture that has been widespread among the elite strata of society since antiquity.
This culture is predominantly represented by religious texts related to Hinduism, just like Greek or Latin in Europe. The Sanskrit language in the East has become a way of intercultural communication between religious leaders and scientists.
Today it is one of the 22 official languages in India. It is worth noting that his grammar is archaic and very complex, but his vocabulary is stylistically diverse and rich.
The Sanskrit language has had a significant influence on other Indian languages, mainly in the area of vocabulary. Nowadays, it is used in religious cults, the humanities, and only in a narrow circle as a colloquial language.
It is in Sanskrit that many artistic, philosophical, religious works of Indian authors, works on science and jurisprudence are written, which influenced the development of culture throughout Central and Southeast Asia and Western Europe.
Works on grammar and vocabulary were collected by the ancient Indian linguist Panini in the work “The Eight Books”. These were the most famous works on the study of any language in the world, having a significant influence on the linguistic disciplines and the emergence of morphology in Europe.
Interestingly, there is no single writing system in Sanskrit. This is explained by the fact that the works of art and philosophical works that existed at that time were transmitted exclusively orally. And if there was a need to write down text, the local alphabet was used.
Devanagari was established as the Sanskrit script only at the end of the 19th century. Most likely, this happened under the influence of Europeans, who preferred this particular alphabet. According to a popular hypothesis, Devanagari was brought to India in the 5th century BC by merchants arriving from the Middle East. But even after mastering writing, many Indians continued to memorize texts the old fashioned way.
Sanskrit was the language of literary monuments from which one can get an idea of Ancient India. The oldest script for Sanskrit that has survived to this day is called Brahmi. It is in this way that the famous monument of ancient Indian history called “Ashoka Inscriptions” is recorded, which consists of 33 inscriptions carved on the walls of caves, by order of the Indian king Ashoka. This is the oldest surviving monument of Indian writing and the first evidence of the existence of Buddhism.
History of origin
The ancient language Sanskrit belongs to the Indo-European language family, it is considered to be part of the Indo-Iranian branch. It has had a significant influence on most modern Indian languages, most notably Marathi, Hindi, Kashmiri, Nepali, Punjabi, Bengali, Urdu and even Romani.
It is believed that Sanskrit is the oldest form of a once unified language. Once within the diverse Indo-European family, Sanskrit underwent sound changes similar to other languages. Many scientists believe that the original speakers of ancient Sanskrit came to the territory of modern Pakistan and India at the very beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. As evidence for this theory, they cite a close relationship with the Slavic and Baltic languages, as well as the presence of borrowings from Finno-Ugric languages, which are not Indo-European.
In some studies by linguists, the similarities between the Russian language and Sanskrit are especially emphasized. It is believed that they have many common Indo-European words that are used to designate objects of fauna and flora. True, many scientists adhere to the opposite point of view, believing that the speakers of the ancient form of the Indian language Sanskrit were the indigenous inhabitants of India and associate them with the Indus civilization.
Another meaning of the word "Sanskrit" is "an ancient Indo-Aryan language." Sanskrit belongs to the Indo-Aryan group of languages by most scientists. From it came many dialects that existed in parallel with the related ancient Iranian language.
When determining which language is Sanskrit, many linguists come to the conclusion that in ancient times another Indo-Aryan language existed in the north of modern India. Only he could convey to modern Hindi some part of his vocabulary, and even phonetic composition.
Similarities with Russian language
According to various studies by linguists, the similarities between the Russian language and Sanskrit are great. Up to 60 percent of words from Sanskrit coincide in pronunciation and meaning with words from the Russian language. It is well known that Natalya Guseva, a doctor of historical sciences and specialist in Indian culture, was one of the first to study this phenomenon. She once accompanied an Indian scientist on a tourist trip to the Russian North, who at some point refused the services of a translator, saying that he was happy to hear living and pure Sanskrit so far from home. From that moment on, Guseva began to study this phenomenon; now, in many studies, the similarity of Sanskrit and the Russian language is convincingly proven.
Some even believe that the Russian North became the ancestral home of all humanity. The relationship of the northern Russian dialects with the oldest language known to mankind has been proven by many scientists. Some suggest that Sanskrit and Russian are much closer than they might initially seem. For example, they claim that it was not the Old Russian language that originated from Sanskrit, but exactly the opposite.
There are indeed many similar words in Sanskrit and Russian. Linguists note that words from the Russian language today can easily describe almost the entire sphere of human mental functioning, as well as his relationship with the surrounding nature, which is the main thing in the spiritual culture of any nation.
Sanskrit is similar to the Russian language, but, claiming that it was the Old Russian language that became the founder of the oldest Indian language, researchers often use openly populist statements that only those who are fighting against the Rus, helping to turn the Russian people into animals, deny these facts. Such scientists are frightened by the coming World War, which is being waged on all fronts. With all the similarities between Sanskrit and the Russian language, we most likely have to say that it was Sanskrit that became the founder and ancestor of Old Russian dialects. And not the other way around, as some claim. So, when determining whose language it is, Sanskrit, the main thing is to use only scientific facts and not go into politics.
Fighters for the purity of Russian vocabulary insist that kinship with Sanskrit will help cleanse the language of harmful borrowings, vulgarizing and polluting factors.
Examples of language relatedness
Now, using a clear example, we will understand how similar Sanskrit and the Slavic language are. Let's take the word "angry". According to Ozhegov’s dictionary, it means “to be irritated, angry, to feel malice towards someone.” It is obvious that the root part of the word “serdt” comes from the word “heart”.
"Heart" is a Russian word that comes from the Sanskrit "hrdaya", so they have the same root -srd- and -hrd-. In a broad sense, the Sanskrit concept of “hrdaya” included the concepts of soul and mind. That is why in Russian the word “get angry” has a pronounced heartfelt affect, which becomes quite logical if we look at the connection with the ancient Indian language.
But why then does the word “get angry” have such a pronounced negative effect? It turns out that even the Indian Brahmins connected passionate affection with hatred and malice into a single pair. In Hindu psychology, anger, hatred and passionate love are considered emotional correlates that complement each other. Hence the famous Russian expression: “From love to hate there is one step.” Thus, with the help of linguistic analysis it is possible to understand the origin of Russian words associated with the ancient Indian language. These are the studies of the similarities between Sanskrit and the Russian language. They prove that these languages are related.
The Lithuanian language and Sanskrit are similar to each other, since initially Lithuanian was practically no different from Old Russian and was one of the regional dialects, similar to modern northern dialects.
Vedic Sanskrit
Particular attention in this article should be given to Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedic analogue of this language can be found in several monuments of ancient Indian literature, which are collections of sacrificial formulas, hymns, religious treatises, for example, the Upanishads.
Most of these works are written in the so-called New Vedic or Middle Vedic languages. Vedic Sanskrit is very different from classical Sanskrit. The linguist Panini generally considered these languages to be different, and today many scientists consider Vedic and classical Sanskrit as variations of dialects of one ancient language. At the same time, the languages themselves are very similar to each other. According to the most common version, classical Sanskrit originated from Vedic.
Among the Vedic literary monuments, the Rig Veda is officially recognized as the first. It is extremely difficult to date it with accuracy, and therefore it is difficult to assess where the history of Vedic Sanskrit should be calculated from. In the early era of their existence, sacred texts were not written down, but were simply spoken out loud and memorized; they are still memorized today.
Modern linguists identify several historical strata in the Vedic language, based on the stylistic features of the texts and grammar. It is generally accepted that the first nine books of the Rig Veda were created precisely on
Epic Sanskrit
The epic ancient language Sanskrit is a transitional form from Vedic to classical Sanskrit. A form that is the most recent variant of Vedic Sanskrit. It went through a certain linguistic evolution, for example, at some historical period, subjunctive phrases disappeared from it.
This variant of Sanskrit is a pre-classical form and was common in the 5th and 4th centuries BC. Some linguists define it as a Late Vedic language.
It is generally accepted that it was the original form of this Sanskrit that was studied by the ancient Indian linguist Panini, who can confidently be called the first philologist of antiquity. He described the phonological and grammatical features of Sanskrit, preparing a work that was most accurately compiled and shocked many with its formalism. The structure of his treatise is an absolute analogue of modern linguistic works devoted to similar research. However, it took modern science thousands of years to achieve the same precision and scientific approach.
Panini describes the language he himself spoke, already at that time actively using Vedic phrases, but not considering them archaic and outdated. It was during this time period that Sanskrit underwent active normalization and ordering. It is in epic Sanskrit that such popular works as today are written, such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana, which are considered the basis of ancient Indian literature.
Modern linguists often pay attention to the fact that the language in which epic works are written is very different from the version set out in the works of Panini. This discrepancy is usually explained by the so-called innovations that occurred under the influence of the Prakrits.
It is worth noting that, in a certain sense, the ancient Indian epic itself contains a large number of prakritisms, that is, borrowings that penetrate into it from the common language. In this way it differs greatly from classical Sanskrit. At the same time, Buddhist hybrid Sanskrit is the literary language of the Middle Ages. Most of the early Buddhist texts were created on it, which over time were, to one degree or another, assimilated into classical Sanskrit.
Classical Sanskrit
Sanskrit is the language of God, many Indian writers, scientists, philosophers, and religious figures are convinced of this.
There are several varieties of it. The first examples of classical Sanskrit come to us from the 2nd century BC. In the comments that the religious philosopher and founder of yoga Patanjali left on Panini's grammar, one can find the first studies in this area. Patanjali states that Sanskrit is a living language at that time, but it may be superseded by various dialect forms over time. In this treatise, he acknowledges the existence of Prakrits, that is, dialects that influenced the development of ancient Indian languages. Due to the use of colloquial forms, the language begins to narrow and grammatical notation becomes standardized.
It is at this point that Sanskrit freezes in its development, turning into a classical form, which Patanjali himself designates with a term meaning “completed”, “finished”, “perfectly made”. For example, the same epithet describes ready-made dishes in India.
Modern linguists believe that there were four key dialects in classical Sanskrit. When the Christian era came, the language practically ceased to be used in its natural form, remaining only in the form of grammar, after which it stopped evolving and developing. It became the official language of worship, it belonged to a specific cultural community, without being associated with other living languages. But it was often used as a literary language.
In this situation, Sanskrit existed until the 14th century. In the Middle Ages, Prakrits became so popular that they formed the basis of neo-Indian languages and began to be used in writing. By the 19th century, Sanskrit was finally forced out of the native literature by the national Indian languages.
A noteworthy story is that it belonged to the Dravidian family, was in no way connected with Sanskrit, but from ancient times competed with it, since it also belonged to a rich ancient culture. Sanskrit contains certain borrowings from this language.
Today's state of the language
The alphabet of the Sanskrit language has approximately 36 phonemes, and if we take into account allophones, which are usually counted when writing, the total number of sounds increases to 48. This feature is the main difficulty for Russians who are going to study Sanskrit.
Nowadays, this language is used exclusively by the upper castes of India as the main spoken language. During the 2001 census, more than 14 thousand Indians admitted that Sanskrit was their main language. Therefore, he cannot be officially considered dead. The development of the language is also evidenced by the fact that international conferences are regularly held, and textbooks on Sanskrit still continue to be republished.
Sociological studies show that the use of Sanskrit in oral speech is very limited, so that the language no longer develops. Based on these facts, many scientists classify it as a dead language, although this is not at all obvious. Comparing Sanskrit with Latin, linguists note that Latin, having ceased to be used as a literary language, was used for a long time in the scientific community by narrow specialists. Both of these languages were constantly updated, going through stages of artificial revival, which were sometimes associated with the desire of political circles. Ultimately, both of these languages became directly associated with religious forms, even though they had long been used in secular circles, so they have much in common.
Basically, the displacement of Sanskrit from literature was associated with the weakening of the institutions of power that supported it in every possible way, as well as with the high competition of other spoken languages, whose speakers sought to instill their own national literature.
A large number of regional variations have led to the heterogeneity of the disappearance of Sanskrit in different parts of the country. For example, in the 13th century in some parts of the Vijayanagara Empire, Kashmiri was used in some areas along with Sanskrit as the main literary language, but works in Sanskrit were better known outside its borders, being most widespread in the territory of the modern country.
Today, the use of Sanskrit in oral speech is minimal, but it continues to remain in the written culture of the country. Most of those who have the ability to read in local languages are able to do so in Sanskrit. It is noteworthy that even Wikipedia has a separate section written in Sanskrit.
After India gained independence in 1947, more than three thousand works were published in this language.
Studying Sanskrit in Europe
Great interest in this language remains not only in India itself and in Russia, but throughout Europe. Back in the 17th century, the German missionary Heinrich Roth made a great contribution to the study of this language. He himself lived in India for many years, and in 1660 he completed his book in Latin on Sanskrit. When Roth returned to Europe, he began publishing excerpts from his work, giving lectures at universities and before meetings of linguistic specialists. It is interesting that his main work on Indian grammar has not been published until now; it is kept only in manuscript form in the National Library of Rome.
The active study of Sanskrit in Europe began at the end of the 18th century. It was discovered for a wide range of researchers in 1786 by William Jones, and before that its features were described in detail by the French Jesuit Kerdoux and the German priest Henksleden. But their works were published only after Jones’s work was published, so they are considered auxiliary. In the 19th century, acquaintance with the ancient language Sanskrit played a decisive role in the creation and development of comparative historical linguistics.
European linguists were delighted with this language, noting its amazing structure, sophistication and richness, even compared to Greek and Latin. At the same time, scientists noted its similarities with these popular European languages in grammatical forms and verb roots, so this, in their opinion, could not be a mere coincidence. The similarity was so strong that the vast majority of philologists who worked with all three of these languages did not doubt the existence of a common ancestor.
Language research in Russia
As we have already noted, Russia has a special attitude towards Sanskrit. For a long time, the work of linguists was associated with two editions of the “Petersburg Dictionaries” (large and small), which appeared in the second half of the 19th century. These dictionaries opened a whole era in the study of Sanskrit for domestic linguists; they became the mainstay of Indological science for the next century.
Vera Kochergina, a professor at Moscow State University, made a great contribution: she compiled the “Sanskrit-Russian Dictionary” and also became the author of the “Textbook of Sanskrit”.
In 1871, the famous article by Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev entitled “Periodic Law for Chemical Elements” was published. In it, he described the periodic system in the form in which we all know it today, and also predicted the discovery of new elements. He called them "ekaaluminium", "ekabor" and "ekasilicon". He left empty spaces for them in the table. It was not by chance that we talked about the chemical discovery in this linguistic article, because Mendeleev showed himself here as an expert in Sanskrit. After all, in this ancient Indian language, “eka” means “one”. It is well known that Mendeleev was close friends with the Sanskrit researcher Betlirgkom, who at that time was working on the second edition of his work on Panini. The American linguist Paul Kriparsky was convinced that Mendeleev gave Sanskrit names to the missing elements, thus expressing recognition of the ancient Indian grammar, which he highly valued. He also noted the special similarity between the chemist’s periodic system of elements and Panini’s Shiva Sutras. According to the American, Mendeleev did not see his table in a dream, but came up with it while studying Hindu grammar.
Nowadays, interest in Sanskrit has weakened significantly; at best, they consider individual cases of coincidence of words and their parts in the Russian language and Sanskrit, trying to find reasoned justifications for the penetration of one language into the other.
Sanskrit, one of the main ancient Indian languages of the Indo-European language family, which received literary treatment. Distributed in Northern India from the 1st century. BC e. It is distinguished by a strictly normalized grammar and a unified system of rules. Sanskrit is opposed to Prakrits as a language brought to formal perfection (samskrta, literally - processed), the Vedic language, archaic and little unified, as well as other ancient Indian dialects that gave rise to Prakrits. Works of fiction, religious, philosophical, legal and scientific literature are written in Sanskrit, which have influenced the culture of Southeast and Central Asia and Western Europe.
Note: If you do not display certain characters of the Sanskrit language, then you need to change the encoding or browser.
Sanskrit(written in Sanskrit): संस्कृतम्
Sanskrit influenced the development of Indian languages (mainly in vocabulary) and some other languages that found themselves in the sphere of Sanskrit or Buddhist culture (Kavi language, Tibetan language). In India, Sanskrit is used as the language of the humanities and cult, in a narrow circle - as a spoken language. There are epic Sanskrit (the language of the Mahabharata and Ramayana, archaic and less normalized), classical Sanskrit (the unified language of extensive literature, described by ancient Indian grammarians and occupying a central place among other types of Sanskrit), Vedic Sanskrit (the language of later Vedic texts, influenced by contemporary Sanskrit), Buddhist hybrid Sanskrit and Jain Sanskrit (Middle Indian languages of Buddhist, respectively Jain texts).
Sanskrit uses different types of writing dating back to Brahmi: Kharosthi, Kushan script, Gupta, Nagari, Devanagari, etc. Phonetics and phonology are characterized by three pure vowels ("a", "e", "o"), two phonemes having vowels and consonants allophones (i/y, u/v), and two smooth ones (r, l), which could act in a syllabic function. The consonant system is highly ordered (5 blocks - labial, anterior lingual, cerebral, posterior lingual and palatal phonemes; each block is formed by the opposition of voiced/voiceless and aspirated/unaspirated). Prosodic features are characterized by differences in the place of stress, the pitch of the stressed syllable and longitude - brevity. Numerous sandhi rules determine the behavior of phonemes at the junctions of morphemes and words. Morphonological feature - the presence of 3 types of roots depending on the number of vowels. The morphology is characterized by an eight-case name system, 3 genders and 3 numbers. The verb has a developed system of tenses and moods.
Syntax depends on the nature of the texts: in some there is a wealth of inflectional forms, in others complex words, analytical forms of tense and voice predominate. The vocabulary is rich and stylistically diverse. The study of Sanskrit in Europe began at the end of the 18th century. Acquaintance with Sanskrit played a role in the early 19th century. a decisive role in the creation of comparative historical linguistics.
| Vowels(vowels) | अ | आ | इ | ई | उ | ऊ | |
| a | aa | i | ii | u | uu | ||
| ए | ऐ | ओ | औ | ||||
| e | ai | o | au | ||||
| ऋ | ॠ | ऌ | ॡ | ||||
| RRi | RRI | LLi | LLI | ||||
| First group(sparsha) | |||||||
| Consonants(consonants) | Deaf | Voiced | Nasals | ||||
| क | ख | ग | घ | ङ | Rear lingual(Guttural) | ||
| ka | kha | ga | gha | ~Na | |||
| च | छ | ज | झ | ञ | Palatal(Palatal) | ||
| ca | cha | ja | jha | ~na | |||
| ट | ठ | ड | ढ | ण | Cerebral(Cerebral) | ||
| Ta | Tha | Da | Dha | Na | |||
| त | थ | द | ध | न | Dental(Dental) | ||
| ta | tha | da | dha | na | |||
| प | फ | ब | भ | म | Labial(Labial) | ||
| pa | pha | ba | bha | ma | |||
Second group of consonants non-nasal sonants (antaHstha) |
|||||||
| य | र | ल | व | ||||
| ya | ra | la | va | ||||
Third group of consonants noisy fricatives (uShman) |
|||||||
| श | ष | स | ह | ||||
| sha | Sha | sa | ha | ||||
In Sanskrit there are special symbols for the so-called weakened consonants:
- visarga- a graphic representation of the sound H arising from s (less often r) at the end of a sentence and at the end of a word or prefix before some consonants: taH तः, maH मः, vaH वः.
- AnusvAra- a graphic representation of the nasal sound.n, occurring after a vowel from m or after vowels at the end of a word before a word beginning with a consonant, except for labial consonants: taM तं, naM नं, paM पं.
- AnunAsika- graphic representation of a nasalized long vowel: tA.N ताँ, vA.N वाँ, dA.N दाँ (rare).
- virAma- stop, if the word ends in a consonant, then the sign ् (.h) is placed at the end, indicating the absence of a.
Devanagari alphabet
| Devanagari | Latin | Russians | Internal |
| अ | a | A | a^ |
| आ | a_ | A_ | a~ |
| इ | i | And | i^ |
| ई | i_ | And_ | i~ |
| उ | u | at | u^ |
| ऊ | u_ | y_ | u~ |
| ऋ | r. | ri | r` |
| ॠ | r._ | pp | R |
| ऌ | l. | l. | l~ |
| ॡ | l._ | l._ | L |
| ए | e | uh | e^ |
| ऐ | ai | ah | y~ |
| ओ | o | O | o^ |
| औ | au | aw | w~ |
| ं | m~ | m~ | x |
| ः | h. | h. | q` |
| क | k | ka | k |
| ख | kh | kha | k^ |
| ग | g | ha | g |
| घ | gh | gha | g^ |
| ङ | N. | N. | N |
| च | c | cha | c |
| छ | ch | hha | c^ |
| ज | j | ja | j |
| झ | jh | jha | jh |
| ञ | n~ | n~a | n~ |
| ट | t. | t.a | t` |
| ठ | t.h | t.ha | t~ |
| ड | d. | Yes | d` |
| ढ | d.h | d.ha | d~ |
| ण | n. | on | n^I |
| त | t | that | t |
| थ | th | tha | t^ |
| द | d | Yes | d |
| ध | dh | dha | d~ |
| न | n | on | n |
| प | p | pa | p |
| फ | ph | pha | p^ |
| ब | b | ba | b |
| भ | bh | bha | b^ |
| म | m | ma | m |
| य | y | yea | y |
| र | r | ra | r |
| ल | l | la | l |
| व | v | va | v |
| श | s` | sha | s^ |
| ष | s`. | sh.a | s~ |
| स | s | sa | s |
| ह | h | ha | h |
Additional letters and signs
| Devanagari | Latin | Russians | Internal |
| ़ | nukta | nukta | x` |
| ा | a_ | ahh | a` |
| ि | i | And | i |
| ी | i_ | II | i` |
| ु | u | at | u |
| ू | u_ | uh | u` |
| ृ | r | R | r` |
| ॄ | rr | pp | R` |
| े | e | uh | e |
| ै | ai | ah | y` |
| ो | o | O | o |
| ौ | au | aw | w` |
| ् | halant | virama | a |
Examples
The endings: न and क - attached to the base of the word, change its meaning in the first case to a certain “totality”, and in the second case they indicate belonging to something.
जन
jana- Human.
जनन
janana - creation, creation.
जनक
janaka- creator, creator.
गण
gan.a - a bunch of.
गणन
gan.ana - check.
गणक
gan.aka - mathematician.
राजीव
rājiva blue lotus
राजन्
rājan raja, king
महा
mahā (combined with other words) big, strong, noble.
महाराज mahā-rāja maharaja, great king. A more significant or more respectful title than simply राजन् rājan.
िपतर्
pitar father.
मातर्
mātar mother.
सुत
suta son.
सुता
sutā daughter.
In Sanskrit the prefix सु su- gives the word the highest degree of quality.
That's why:
सुजन
good man.
सुसुत
good son.
A careful examination of Hindi and Sanskrit reveals that the only difference is that in Sanskrit all words are written in one line, and in Hindi they are separated by a space. Therefore, you can combine the study of these two languages and consider them as a whole.
Consonants that do not cause difficulties:
J M P B K T D N L R V G H J S W W X
य म प ब क त द न ल र व ग च ज स श ष ह
Note: Ш and Ш are two different sounds, but the difference in their pronunciation is practically insignificant.
PH BH KH GH HH JH TH DH
फ भ ख घ छ झ भ ध
Consonants (only in Hindi), which are used to transcribe borrowed words: ZF (the spelling is no different from DZH and PH) except for the dot at the bottom:
Cerebral:
T TX D DH R RH
ट ठ ड ढ ड़ ढ़
Cerebral have no analogues in the Russian language, so they can simply be classified as one of the spelling options for the letters already discussed above.
Another “inconvenience” of the Sanskrit and Hindi alphabets is that they have several phonetic variants of the H sound:
ङ ञ ण
So, the final version of the correspondences of the Russian-Devanagari alphabet:
A अआ
|
DH धढ
|
R रड़
|
Pronunciation:
अ|प| - |a|a| Unstressed a (schwa), like o in water.
आ|पा - |ā|A| like the shock and in dog, stick, only long.
इ|पि| - |i|i| More closed than Russian and shorter.
ई|पी| - |ī|I| Long version of the previous one.
उ|पु| - |u|u| Like Russian u, short.
ऊ|पू| - |ū|U| Long version of the previous one.
ऋ|पृ| - |R| Like the English r in red, bread.
ॠ|पॄ| - |RR| double version of the previous one.
ऌ|पॢ| - |LR| L with tongue curved back. Exotic sound, found in Telugu, Norwegian.
ॡ|पॣ| - |LRR| A double version of the previous one.
ए|पे| - |e|e| diphthong like a in English bane. (ee).
ऐ|पै| - |ai|ai| Diphthong like i in English mite (ai).
ओ|पो| - |o|o| Diphthong like o in English bone (ow).
औ|पौ| - |au|au| Diphthong like ou in English house (ау).
प्रेम (prem) - Love(Sanskrit)