Language as a sign system. Basic functions of the language. Language (system of signs) Language as a system of verbal signs

02.03.2024

A science called . The range of phenomena studied by semiotics includes sign language, maritime semaphores, road signs and many other phenomena, but among them the most widespread and most deeply studied is language. Usually people perceive language as a product of human culture, uniting society and being the outer shell of thinking, without which it is impossible to understand human thoughts. But, in addition to this, language is also a system of certain signs interacting with each other, agreed upon by the rules of syntax.

In order for any phenomenon to be considered as a sign system, it must have a certain set of symbols that replace the function of the object, point to it, but do not coincide with its material characteristics. These signs must be material, that is, accessible to perception. The main function of a sign is to convey meaning. Since the basic unit meets all these requirements, the language is a sign system.

But semiotics treats it a little differently than other sign systems, highlighting its specific features. Firstly, unlike other symbol systems, language develops independently, spontaneously. Despite the fact that humanity in general or its individual groups take part in the development of language, it is formed naturally, and does not change according to certain rules adopted as a result of an agreement.

There are artificial languages created intentionally for communication, but when used by people for this purpose, they begin to develop and improve spontaneously.

Secondly, all other sign systems, which are distinguished by artificial creation, were formed on the basis of natural language, that is, they are secondary. In addition, language performs several functions at once and has much more complex and multi-layered relationships between signs.

Language is the only sign system with the help of which a person learns other similar systems.

Aspects of language as a system of signs

Semiotics studies language under three main aspects: semantic, syntactic and pragmatic. Semantics deals with the study of the meaning of signs, that is, their content, which is understood as any objects (objective meaning) or phenomena (conceptual meaning) in the minds of people. In the sign system of language, this meaning is virtual, it does not relate to a specific situation and does not denote a specific phenomenon, but in speech the sign, that is, the word, becomes real.

Syntax studies the rules for combining characters with each other. Any language is not a chaotic set of signs. Words are combined with each other according to certain rules, their arrangement affects the final meaning. The rules for constructing phrases and sentences among themselves are called syntactic.

Pragmatics explores the ways of using language in certain situations: how the meaning of a word-sign changes depending on the time, place of its use, and those who use them. The pragmatic aspect of semiotics considers not only the content of language, but also its design.

The sign has the following properties:

the sign must be material, accessible to perception;
the sign is directed towards the meaning;
the content of a sign does not coincide with its material characteristics, while the content of a thing is exhausted by its material properties;
the content and form of the sign are determined by distinctive features;
a sign is always a member of a system, and its content largely depends on the place of a given sign in the system.

The above properties of the sign determine a number of requirements for the culture of speech.

Firstly, the speaker (writer) must take care that the signs of his speech (sounding words or writing signs) are convenient for perception: sufficiently clearly audible, visible.
Secondly, it is necessary that the signs of speech express some content, convey meaning, and in such a way that the form of speech makes it easier to understand the content of speech.
Thirdly, it is necessary to keep in mind that the interlocutor may be less knowledgeable about the subject of the conversation, which means that it is necessary to provide him with the missing information, which only in the opinion of the speaker is already contained in the spoken words.
Fourthly, it is important to ensure that the sounds of spoken speech and the letters of writing are clearly distinguished from each other.
Fifthly, it is important to remember the systemic connections of a word with other words, take into account polysemy, use synonymy, and keep in mind the associative connections of words.

Thus, knowledge from the field semiotics(sciences of signs) contribute to improving speech culture.

Language sign May be code sign and text sign.

Code signs exist in the form of a system of units opposed in language, connected by a relationship of significance, which determines the content of signs specific to each language.
Text characters exist in the form of a formally and meaningfully related sequence of units. Speech culture presupposes the speaker's attentive attitude to the coherence of the spoken or written text.

Meaning- this is the content of a linguistic sign, formed as a result of the reflection of extra-linguistic reality in the minds of people. The meaning of a language unit in the language system virtually, i.e. determined by what the unit can stand for. In a specific utterance, the meaning of a linguistic unit becomes relevant, since the unit correlates with a specific object, with what it actually means in a statement. From the point of view of the culture of speech, it is important for the speaker to clearly direct the interlocutor’s attention to updating the meaning of the statement, to help him correlate the statement with the situation, and for the listener it is important to show maximum attention to the communicative intentions of the speaker.

Distinguish substantive and conceptual meaning.

Subject meaning consists in the correlation of a word with an object, in the designation of an object.
Conceptual meaning serves to express a concept reflecting an object, to specify a class of objects denoted by a sign.

The language that a person uses in everyday communication is not only a historically established form of culture that unites human society, but also a complex sign system. Understanding the sign properties of a language is necessary in order to better understand the structure of the language and the rules of its use. The words of human language are signs of objects and concepts. Words are the most numerous and main signs in a language. Other units of language are also signs. A sign is a substitute for an object for the purpose of communication; a sign allows the speaker to evoke an image of an object or concept in the mind of the interlocutor. The sign has the following properties: - the sign must be material, accessible to perception; - the sign is directed towards the meaning; -----the content of a sign does not coincide with its material characteristics, while the content of a thing is exhausted by its material properties; -----the content and form of the sign are determined by distinctive features; -sign is always a member of the system, and its content largely depends on the place of the given sign in the system. 6. Phonology(from the Greek φωνή - “sound” and λόγος - “teaching”) - a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of the sound structure of a language and the functioning of sounds in the language system. The basic unit of phonology is the phoneme, the main object of study is the contrasts (oppositions) of phonemes, which together form the phonological system of the language.
Most experts consider phonology (the study of the functional side of speech sounds) as a section (part) of phonetics (the study of speech sounds); some view the two disciplines as non-overlapping branches of linguistics.
The difference between phonology and phonetics is that the subject of phonetics is not reduced to the functional aspect of speech sounds, but also covers its substantial aspect, namely: physical and biological (physiological) aspects: articulation, acoustic properties of sounds, their perception by the listener ( perceptual phonetics)
Phonetics- a branch of linguistics in which the sound structure of a language is studied, i.e. speech sounds, syllables, stress, intonation. There are three sides to speech sounds, and they correspond to three sections of phonetics:
1. Speech acoustics. She studies the physical signs of speech.
2. Anthropophonics or physiology of speech. She studies the biological characteristics of speech, i.e., the work performed by a person when pronouncing (articulating) or perceiving speech sounds.
3.Phonology. It studies speech sounds as a means of communication, that is, the function or role of sounds used in language.
Phonology is often distinguished as a separate discipline from phonetics. In such cases, the first two sections of phonetics (in the broad sense) - speech acoustics and speech physiology - are combined into phonetics (in the narrow sense), which is opposed to phonology. Phoneme
The main concept in phonology is phoneme. The term “phoneme” was introduced into linguistics by the great Russian-Polish linguist, a descendant of French nobles, Ivan (Jan) Aleksandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay (1845 - 1929), the founder of the Kazan school of linguistics. He considered the phoneme to be a mental version of the sounds of a language.

Phoneme - This is a sound type, a generalized, ideal idea of sound. The phoneme cannot be pronounced, only the shades of the phonemes are pronounced. The phoneme is the general, the actually pronounced sound is the specific.
In speech, sounds undergo various changes. There are a huge number of physical sounds that make up speech. How many people, so many sounds, for example. , [a] can be pronounced differently in pitch, strength, duration, timbre, but all the different millions of sounds [a] are designated by one letter, reflecting one sound type, one phoneme. Of course, phonemes and letters of the alphabet are often not the same, but parallels can be drawn between them. The number of both is strictly limited, and in some languages it almost coincides. A phoneme can be roughly described as a letter in the sound alphabet. If in a stream of speech of thousands of different sounds it is possible to distinguish different words, it is only thanks to phonemes.
Consequently, a phoneme is the minimum sound unit of a language system that allows one to distinguish between words and the meaning of words.
In the word “milk” one phoneme /o/ is represented by three positional variants - stressed and two unstressed.
Thus, a phoneme is an abstraction, a type, a model of sound, and not the sound itself. Therefore, the concepts of “phoneme” and “speech sound” do not coincide.
The word "boy" has two phonemes, not three, because it is different from the words by, be, bee, bar, etc.
There are also cases when two phonemes sound like one sound. For example, in the word “children’s” /t/ and /s/ sound like one sound [ts], and in the word “sew” /s/ and /sh/ sound like a long [sh].
Each phoneme is a set of essential features by which it differs from other phonemes. Eg. , /t/ is voiceless in contrast to voiced /d/, front-lingual in contrast to /p/, plosive in contrast to /s/, etc.
The features by which a phoneme differs from others are called differential (distinctive) features.
For example, in Russian language the word “there” can be pronounced with short [a] and long [a:], but the meaning of the word will not change. Consequently, in Russian these are not two phonemes, but two variants of one phoneme. But in English and German language Phonemes also differ in longitude (English bit and bee, German Bann and Bahn). In Russian language the sign of nasalization cannot be a differential feature, since all Russian vowel phonemes are non-nasal. 7.Acoustic aspect of the study of sounds. Phonetics studies the sound structure of a language, that is, the sounds of speech and the rules for their combination in a word and flow of speech. In addition to speech sounds, phonetics studies syllables, stress, and intonation. Speech is accessible to listeners due to the materiality of its sounds, therefore the study of the sound side of language is an integral part of linguistics. Without knowing phonetics, it is impossible to understand modern writing, and it is not always possible to correctly understand grammar. As a natural phenomenon, speech sounds have an acoustic and articulatory side. Of these two sides, the articulatory side is practically more important - the production and perception of sound by a person. Even more important is their functional side - their identifying and distinguishing role in the communication process. Thus, Three aspects can be distinguished in the study of sounds: acoustic, articulatory (physiological) and functional (phonemic). By their physical nature, speech sounds are oscillatory movements of the air environment caused by the sounding body (that is, the speech organs).

Speech acoustics consists of types of oscillatory movements, timbre of sound, its height, intensity and duration of sound. Depending on the nature of the oscillatory movements, sounds are divided into musical (tones) and non-musical (noise). Tone arises as a result of non-periodic (non-rhythmic) vibrations of the sounding body, for example, the lips. Polar in sonority are, for example, the vowel A and the consonant P. Between them are sonorant sounds: R, L, M, N, Y. In some languages, the consonant L can increase its sonority and turn into a syllabic L, for example, in the Czech language. In Korean, the consonant L can lose its voice, turning into a dull noisy consonant. Pitch determined by the number of vibrations of the vocal cords. In speech, the pitch of the voice depends on the length and tension of the vocal cords. The power of sound(intensity) is determined by the amplitude of the vibration, which depends on the pressure of the air stream and the size of the surface of the sounding body. The sound of speech is acoustically complex, as it contains not only fundamental tones, but also resonator tones (resonance translated from French as “echo”). Their ratio is of great importance in determining the main quality of sound - timbre. Timbre creates a quality sound characteristic. Timbre distinguishes one sound from another, as well as the sounds of one person from the sounds of another. The work of the speech organs aimed at producing sounds is called articulation. Articulation consists of three parts: 1. excursion - the speech organs go to work producing sounds; 2. exposure - installation of the speech organs for a given articulation; 3. recursion - returning the speech organs to their original state. Features in the pronunciation of sounds in a particular language constitute its articulatory base. The articulatory base of a language arises as a result of the historical evolution of the pronunciation apparatus of each people. Articulatory habits persist over a number of eras. When learning a foreign language, the articulatory base of the native language leaves its mark on the speaker’s pronunciation. This is the reason for the accent. If a speaker masters the articulatory base of a foreign language well, then he can speak this language more clearly than a native speaker. The articulatory bases of languages differ from each other by the different activity of the speech organs and the different connections of the speech organs. Therefore, the phonetic systems of different languages have their own national characteristics. Among the Caucasian peoples, the sounds “g, k, x” are formed not in the oral cavity, but in the larynx and are called deep laryngeal. The sound “r” in French and “h” in German are formed by the vibration of the small tongue, that is, a continuation of the upper palate, and are called uvular. In some languages, vowels and consonants are contrasted by length and shortness. Thus, in the Estonian language, vowels and consonants have three degrees of longitude: short, long and extra-long sounds. In English, vowel sounds are distinguished by length and shortness. This quality affects the meaning of the word. Longitude and shortness of sounds are characteristic of the Czech, Finnish and Yakut languages. A number of languages have special nasal vowels. They are designated by separate letters. Nasal vowels are retained in modern Polish and French. There are diphthongs in many languages of the world. These are vowels with complex articulation. They are pronounced as a single speech sound. One of these vowels is the main one, and the other is the overtone. Diphthongs are particularly widespread in the English language. 8. STRUCTURE OF THE SPEECH APPARATUS A number of organs take part in the production of speech sounds, which together form the human speech apparatus. This apparatus consists of four main parts: the breathing apparatus, the larynx, the oral cavity, and the nasal cavity.
The respiratory apparatus consists of the diaphragm, or thoraco-abdominal obstruction, chest, lungs, bronchi, and windpipe.
The role of the breathing apparatus in speech is similar to the role of bellows that pump air: it produces the air stream necessary for the formation of sound.
There are two phases in the operation of the breathing apparatus: inhalation and exhalation.
When inhaled, air enters the lungs through the windpipe and bronchi; when exhaling, it comes out of them back. With simple breathing (not during speech), both phases are approximately equal in duration. During speech, inhalation occurs quickly, and exhalation is prolonged. This happens because in the process of speech exhalation is used mainly, and inhalation only restores the supply of air used up in speech. Thus, when we speak, air from the lungs through the bronchi through the windpipe enters the larynx.
The larynx makes up the upper end of the windpipe. It is an organ that serves almost exclusively for the purpose of producing sounds. The larynx is like a musical instrument that produces a wide variety of sounds in pitch and strength.
Across the larynx are two bundles of elastic muscles, similar to two lips, called the vocal cords. The edges of the vocal cords facing each other are free and form a slit called the glottis.
When the ligaments are not stretched, the glottis is wide open, and air passes through it freely. It is this position that the ligaments occupy when forming voiceless consonants. When they are tense and touch each other, free passage for air is difficult. The air flow passes forcefully between the ligaments, resulting in an oscillatory movement that causes them to tremble and vibrate. The result is a musical sound called voice. It takes part in the formation of vowels, sonorants and voiced consonants.
The oral cavity plays a dual role in the formation of sounds. On the one hand, it serves as a resonator, which gives different colors (timbre) to sounds. On the other hand, it is the place where independent noises of varying quality are produced, which are either mixed with the voice, or themselves, without the participation of the voice, form sounds.
The quality of sounds in the oral cavity, as well as the role of the oral cavity as a resonator, depend on the volume and shape, which can be varied due to the movement of the lips and tongue. These movements are called articulations. Through articulations, each speech sound receives its final “finishing”. This makes it different from other sounds. The articulations of the tongue and lips are also accompanied by the movement of the lower jaw, which, when lowered, expands the oral cavity or, with a reverse movement, narrows it.
Language is especially important in the formation of speech sounds. It is extremely mobile and assumes different positions in relation to the teeth and palate. The front part of the tongue is especially mobile, the tip of which can touch almost any place in the mouth, from the teeth to the soft palate.
Depending on which part, to what extent and to which place of the palate the tongue rises, the volume and shape of the oral cavity changes, resulting in different noises.
In a language, no natural boundaries can be drawn between its parts, so the division is completely arbitrary.
The part of the tongue located opposite the dental part of the palate (along with the tip of the tongue) is called the anterior part. The part of the tongue located opposite the hard palate is the middle part.
The part of the tongue located opposite the soft palate is called the posterior part.
Differences in sounds depend on differences in the articulation of the tongue, and it is necessary to distinguish between the place and method of articulation.
The place of articulation is determined by:

what part of it articulates the language;
in relation to which point he articulates (teeth, palate).

The front part of the tongue can articulate in relation to the upper teeth (for example, when forming consonant sounds, [to], [z], [s], [k], [l]) and in relation to the dental part of the palate (for example, when forming consonants [zh], [nі], [r]).
When the tongue articulates with its middle part, its back approaches the hard palate (for example, when forming a consonant sound [/] or vowels [i], [e]).
When the tongue articulates with the back, its back rises to the soft palate (when forming consonants [g], [k], [X] or vowels [y]gt; [o]).
When pronouncing consonants in the Russian language, the movement of the middle part of the tongue can join other articulations, thanks to such additional articulation the so-called soft pronunciation of consonants is obtained.
What we call “softness” of sound is acoustically determined by the higher pitch of noise generated in the oral cavity compared to the corresponding “hard” sound. This higher pitch is associated with a change in shape and a decrease in the volume of the resonating oral cavity.
The work of the lips also plays a large role in the formation of sounds, but less than the tongue. Lip articulations are performed either with both lips or only with the lower lip.
With the help of the lips, independent noises similar to those produced by the tongue can be produced. For example, lips, closing with each other, can form a seal, which is burst with an explosion by a stream of air. This is how the consonants [i] (without voice) and [b] (with voice) are formed. If the passage into the nasal cavity is open, then the consonant [l*] is obtained.
The border between the oral cavity and the passage to the nasal cavity is the so-called velum palatine (a movable soft palate ending in a small uvula). The purpose of the velum palatine is to open or close the passage from the pharynx into the nasal cavity for air.
The purpose of the nasal cavity is to serve as a resonator for the formation of certain sounds. During the formation of most of the sounds of the Russian language, the nasal cavity does not take part, since the velum palatine is raised and the access of air to the nasal cavity is closed. When sounds are formed
[g], [n] the velum palatine is lowered, the passage into the nasal cavity is open, and then the oral cavity and the nasal cavity form one common resonating chamber, another qualitative color - timbre. Articulation(from lat. articulo- “dismember”) - in phonetics, the totality of the work of individual pronunciation organs in the formation of sound speech. All active pronunciation organs take one part or another in the pronunciation of any speech sound. The position of these organs, necessary for the formation of a given sound, forms its articulation, the separability of sounds, and the clarity of their sound.

Stricture is one of the modes of formation, that is, the determining factor in how closely the speech organs approach each other to create sounds. Parameters other than stricture are involved in the formation of single- and multi-stressed fricatives, as well as in sibilant fricatives. Nasality and the pronunciation of lateral consonants are also considered a way of forming consonants, but some scientists, such as Peter Ladefoged, consider them to be a separate phenomenon.

Human vocal tract

Sound articulation consists of 3 stages:

1. Excursion- preparation of the speech apparatus for pronouncing a sound, or the beginning of articulation;

2. Excerpt- pronunciation itself, maintaining the position of the organs necessary for pronunciation;

3. Recursion- the end of articulation, which is the completion of a sound, at which the organs of speech change their location to pronounce the next sound or go into a state of rest.

In real conditions, it is usually not individual sounds that are pronounced, but a speech chain, then the excursion of the next sound is superimposed on the recursion, and sometimes on the excursion of the previous sound.

Articulation base- in phonetics - a set of adaptations of the speech apparatus to the formation of sounds of the language in which a person communicates.

The articulatory base is very stable and familiar to all members of a given language community. The speech apparatus records with high accuracy - to the point of complete automation - those relative positions and positions of the speech organs that are necessary for pronouncing all the sounds of the language. A good mastery of the articulatory base is necessary for mastering the correct pronunciation of the language being studied.

Transferring the articulatory base of one language to the pronunciation of sounds of another language gives the so-called accent.

11.Phonological systems of languages. N.S. Trubetskoy reduced phonological relations to relations between phonemes, which are bundles of differential features (differentiators). This differentiating feature is gradually recognized as an elementary phonological unit. It remained to establish a set of these features in order to study the phonological systems of languages by comparison with a previously constructed model.

One of the attempts to identify a set of differentiators and apply it to the study of the phonological system were the works of R.O. Jacobskon and M. Halle with the participation of G.M. Fanta and E. Cherry in the 50s. Their theory was called dichotomous, or binary. In essence, this theory, under new conditions, continued the works of the Prague linguistic school.

The classification of phonological oppositions in dichotomous theory is based on several principles. The first principle is the binary relation of differents. This means that when studying specific languages, each phoneme is determined by a set of differential features from a number of given pairs. These paired oppositions are either privative or diametrically opposed. Binary theory corresponds to the principle of binary on which computer operation is based. It made it possible to reduce numerous oppositions of differential characteristics to binomial ones.

The second principle of this theory is the belief that all languages of the world have a certain limited set of differential features. These features are common to both consonants and vowels. In a certain language, of course, not all features appear. In addition, the same phonological feature does not necessarily have the same form in every language.

In addition, the binary theory, with its characteristics, is based on the achievements of modern acoustic phonetics. The vibrational movements that collectively make up the sound of speech have not only frequency, but also amplitude. The analysis of sound by its constituent frequencies and their relative amplitudes can be represented graphically in the form of a spectrogram. In this regard, established oppositions can be checked using “visible” speech.

As a result of reducing all numerous oppositions to binary ones, R. Jacobson and his colleagues established the following 12 pairs of differential features for segmental phonemes: vocality - non-vocality; consonance – non-consonance; duration – non-duration (discontinuity – continuity); aruptiveness – non-abruptiveness; brightness - dimness; sonority - deafness; compactness – diffuseness; low tonality – high tonality; flat key - simple key; sharp tonality - simple tonality; nasality - non-nasality; tension - non-tension.

Vocality is characterized by the presence of tone. Consonance is due to the presence of noise. Noisy consonants are devoid of vocality, but sonorant consonants combine the characteristics of vocality and consonance. Duration and non-duration mean fricative and explosive, respectively. By abortiveness we mean the formation of consonants accompanied by a glottal stop. Bright consonants will be those in the pronunciation of which the barrier is gradually destroyed (labial-dental, whistling, hissing). Other consonants belong to the dull consonants. Voicing is associated with the participation of the vocal cords in the formation of a consonant. The opposition compactness - diffuseness is articulated by the fact that compact consonants are formed in the back of the oral cavity, and diffuse consonants in the front. Associated with spectral analysis is the opposition between high and low tonality. The vowels o, u, a, as well as hard and labial consonants have low tonality; high tonality is characteristic of vowels i, e, as well as dental and soft consonants. The sign of flat tonality is characterized by soft consonants, as opposed to hard ones. Dizzy tonality is characteristic of labialized vowels. Nasality is due to the acquisition of a nasal timbre by the sound due to the lowering of the velum and the simultaneous release of an air stream through the nose and mouth. Tension - non-tension characterizes, for example, the pronunciation of German consonants.

12. Variation of phonemes- a relationship of linguistic units that can equally occur in some given context, but do not contrast with each other, that is, as a result of replacing one of them with another, a new word or sentence does not arise]. The modification of units during free variation is not determined by position, which distinguishes this phenomenon of othalloemic variation, for example, from positional allophones. Examples of free variation in the Russian language are doublets zero - zero, galosh - galosh, fox - vixen, as well as variants of the signifying ending of the instrumental case of the singular in forms like hands Ouch - hands oh .

In relation to the sound units of a language, free variation is the non-meaningful variation of sounds caused by individual characteristics of pronunciation, its dialectal or sociolectal features. This, in particular, is the difference between hard [ž:] and soft [ž’:] in the pronunciation of Russian. in and zzh at, in LJ And. The ratio of free variation of sound units indicates that they belong to the same phoneme.

Question 1

Language as a sign system. Basic functions of the language

When communicating, we use linguistic signs - substitutes for objects. We do not convey object A, but evoke image B. There are two meanings in a linguistic sign:

Specific - determined by the unique qualities of the sign

Abstract - determined by the relationship of a given sign to other signs of the language

Language serves as an intermediary between thinking and sound, and they cannot be separated from each other. A linguistic sign connects concepts and an acoustic image.

An acoustic image is not only a sound, but also a psychological imprint of the sound, or the idea that we receive about it.

Properties of a linguistic sign

A linguistic sign has the following properties:

Arbitrariness - any concept can be associated with any other combination of sounds

Linearity - we perceive linguistic signs one at a time; in this case, the position of the linguistic sign relative to other linguistic signs is important

Functions of the tongue sign: Edit

The linguistic sign has two functions:

Perceptual - it can be an object of perception

Significative - he has the ability to distinguish higher, significant elements of language - morphemes, words, sentences.

The differences between letters (graphic linguistic signs) and sounds (phonetic linguistic signs) are not functional, but material.

The words of human language are signs of objects. Words are the most numerous and significant signs.

Thus, a linguistic sign is a substitute for an object, used for communication purposes and allowing the speaker to evoke images of an object or concept in the mind of the interlocutor.

The difference between human language and other sign systems lies in its universality. Other systems are limited in their application. They are a set of signals that include certain reflexes necessary to resolve the condition, but they do not have a separate meaning.

Basic functions of the language

The main functions of the language are:

Communicative (communication function);

Thought-forming (function of embodiment and expression of thoughts);

Expressive (function of expressing the internal state of the speaker);

Aesthetic (the function of creating beauty through language).

The communicative function lies in the ability of language to serve as a means of communication between people. Language has the units necessary to construct messages, the rules for their organization, and ensures the emergence of similar images in the minds of participants in communication.

Language also has special means of establishing and maintaining contact between participants in communication.

From the point of view of speech culture, the communicative function presupposes the orientation of the participants in speech communication towards the fruitfulness and mutual usefulness of communication, as well as a general focus on the adequacy of understanding speech.

Achieving functional communication efficiency is impossible without knowledge and compliance with the norms of the literary language.

The thought-forming function is that language serves as a means of designing and expressing thoughts. The structure of language is organically connected with the categories of thinking.

This means that the word highlights and formalizes the concept, and at the same time a relationship is established between units of thinking and symbolic units of language. That is why W. Humboldt believed that “language must accompany thought. Thought must, keeping up with language, follow from one of its elements to another and find in language a designation for everything that makes it coherent” (ibid., p. 345) . According to Humboldt, “in order to correspond to thinking, language, as far as possible, in its structure must correspond to the internal organization of thinking” (ibid.).

The speech of an educated person is distinguished by the clarity of the presentation of his own thoughts, the accuracy of the retelling of other people's thoughts, consistency and information content.

The expressive function allows language to serve as a means of expressing the internal state of the speaker, not only to convey some information, but also to express the speaker’s attitude to the content of the message, to the interlocutor, to the communication situation. Language expresses not only thoughts, but also human emotions.

The expressive function presupposes the emotional brightness of speech within the framework of socially accepted etiquette.

Artificial languages do not have an expressive function.

The aesthetic function is to ensure that the message, in its form in unity with the content, satisfies the aesthetic sense of the addressee. The aesthetic function is characteristic primarily of poetic speech (folklore, fiction), but not only of it - journalistic, scientific speech, and everyday colloquial speech can be aesthetically perfect.

The aesthetic function presupposes the richness and expressiveness of speech, its correspondence to the aesthetic tastes of the educated part of society.

Question 2

The meaning of the concept of “speech culture” and its main qualities

A culture of speech- knowledge of the norms of oral and written literary language (rules of pronunciation, word usage, grammar and stylistics). It is used in modern science in two main meanings: 1) socially and historically conditioned modern speech culture of society; 2) a set of requirements for the quality of oral and written speech of native speakers of a literary language from the point of view of a socially perceived linguistic ideal, the taste of a certain era. There are usually two stages in mastering speech culture. The first is associated with students’ mastery of literary and linguistic norms. Mastery of them ensures correct speech, which forms the basis of individual speech speech. The second stage involves the creative application of norms in different communication situations, including speech skills, the ability to choose the most accurate, stylistically and situationally appropriate options. Literacy is a traditional sign of “cultured” speech. Signs: correctness, purity, accuracy, expressiveness, logic, relevance, richness.

Main features

Processing (literary language is a language processed by masters of words: writers, poets, scientists, public figures);

Resilience (stability);

Required for all native speakers

Standardization

Availability of functional styles.

The modern concept of speech culture as a science identifies 3 leading aspects of speech culture:

- regulatory (compliance with current standards);

- ethical (compliance with certain rules of communication, ethical standards of behavior);

- communicative(culture of proficiency in different functional varieties of language). Expedient and easy use of language for communication purposes

provide the quality of “good” speech: accuracy, purity, logic,

expressiveness, richness, relevance. Accuracy – correspondence between the semantic content of speech and the information that underlies it. Speech accuracy is associated with accuracy

word usage, with the correct use of polysemantic words,

synonyms, antonyms, homonyms. The most important condition for speech accuracy is

compliance with lexical norms. Speech is accurate if the speaker selects

those words and constructions that more accurately than others convey shades of meaning that are essential specifically for a given statement. Purity means the absence in speech of elements alien to the literary language

(dialectal, professional, slang, etc.) Logic is the expression in the semantic connections of the components of speech of the connections and relationships between the parts of the components of thought. The expressiveness of speech is the quality that arises as a result of the implementation of the expressive capabilities inherent in the language. Expressiveness can be created by linguistic units of all levels. In addition, there are specific figurative properties of language (tropes, stylistic figures) that make the statement vivid, figurative, and emotional. Expression

creates also by using catchwords, proverbs and sayings. Speech

the experience of each of us suggests that in terms of the degree of impact on our

consciousness and speech are not the same. Two lectures given on the same topic

have completely different effects on people. The effect depends on the degree

expressiveness of speech. Wealth is the wide and free use of linguistic units in

speech that allows you to optimally express information. Relevance is the use in speech of language units that correspond to the goals, situation, conditions, and content of communication.

Question 3

Basic aspects of speech culture, definitions.

Three aspects of speech culture

Speech culture is also defined as such a choice and such an organization of linguistic means, which in a certain communication situation, subject to modern language norms and communication ethics, allows for the greatest effect in achieving the set communicative tasks. The definition emphasizes three aspects of speech culture: normative, ethical, communicative.

The normative aspect is based on the definition of norm as the central concept of speech culture given by S.I. Ozhegov:

A norm is a set of language means that are most suitable (“correct”, “preferred”) for serving society, emerging as a result of the selection of linguistic elements (lexical, pronunciation, morphological, syntactic) from among coexisting, existing, newly formed or extracted from the passive stock of the past ...

The ethical aspect of speech culture is the moral and moral justification of the spoken and written word: knowledge and application of the rules of linguistic behavior in specific situations.

The communicative aspect of speech culture is associated with the function of language, with the observance of certain rules of speech communication. To successfully implement communication tasks, you need an understanding of the areas of communication. Native speakers, in accordance with the requirements of the communicative aspect of speech culture, must master the functional styles of the language, as well as be familiar with colloquial speech and the language of fiction, which in their linguistic organization differ from functional styles.

The basis of the Russian literary language is the literary norm. In the process of active language policy in science, ideas about the normalization of language, its codification, language variants, and deviations from the literary norm have developed.

There are orthological dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that recommend norms of correct speech, which provide normative and stylistic assessments of linguistic phenomena from the point of view of their compliance with the norms of the literary language. Among modern orthological dictionaries are spelling, spelling, grammatical; dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, paronyms; phraseological dictionaries; Dictionaries of lexical difficulties of the Russian language. Using the vocabulary necessary in a given situation will help overcome difficulties that arise in communication practice.

Question 4

The concept of a language norm

A linguistic norm (literary norm) is the rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of a literary language. The norm is mandatory for both oral and written speech and covers all aspects of the language. There are norms: orthoepic (pronunciation), orthographic (writing), word-formation, lexical, morphological, grammatical, syntactic, intonation, punctuation. Characteristic features of the literary language norm: - relative stability,

Prevalence, - common use, - universally binding,

Conformity to the use, custom and capabilities of the language system.

Language norms are a historical phenomenon. Changes in literary norms are due to the constant development of language. The sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are different: living, colloquial speech, local dialects, vernacular, professional jargon, other languages.

Question 5

Pronunciation of consonants

The basic laws of pronunciation of consonants are deafening and assimilation. Living pronunciation in its past and present state is reflected in poetic speech, in poetry, where one or another rhyme speaks of the pronunciation of the corresponding sounds.

Variation of stress

In order to avoid mistakes in placing emphasis, you should know not only the norm, but also the types of options, as well as the conditions under which one or another of them can be used. It is recommended to use special dictionaries and reference books. They provide a system of normative marks (unified for assessing pronunciation, accent and morphological variants), which looks like this.

Equal options. Variants of the norm, of which one is recognized as the main one:

a) the mark “acceptable” (additional). Most often used in colloquial speech.

b) the mark “acceptably outdated” (additionally obsolete). Pometta indicates that the option she evaluates is gradually being lost, but in the past it was the main one.

The dictionary also includes options that are outside the literary norm. To indicate these options, so-called prohibitive marks are introduced:

b) “wrong” (wrong) c) “grossly incorrect” (grossly wrong) A number of stress options are associated with the professional sphere of use.

Question 6

Question 7

Speech accuracy

Accuracy of speech is most often associated with accuracy of word use. Speech accuracy is determined by:

Knowledge of the subject, - logic of thinking, - the ability to choose the right words.

Violation of the accuracy of speech as a result of insufficient knowledge of the peculiarities of the Russian language is the use of words in a meaning that is unusual for them; ambiguity unresolved by context; generating ambiguity; mixing of paronyms and homonyms.

Each significant word performs a nominative function, that is, it names an object or its quality, action, state. This obliges speakers to pay attention to the meaning of words and to use them correctly.

The accuracy of speech is reduced by ignorance of the existence of paronyms and homonyms in the language, and the inability to neutralize these phenomena in speech.

Paronyms are words that are similar in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. The presence of paronyms in the language leads to the fact that in oral and written speech one word is mistakenly used instead of another.

The use of homonyms in speech, i.e. words that are different in meaning, but identical in spelling and sound, can also lead to semantic inaccuracy and ambiguity of the statement.

Speech intelligibility

According to researchers, the general intelligibility of a language is determined primarily by the selection of speech means, namely the need to limit the use of words that are on the periphery of the vocabulary of the language and do not have the quality of communicative universal significance.

The huge dictionary of the Russian language from the point of view of the sphere of use can be divided into two large groups - vocabulary of an unlimited sphere of use, which includes commonly used words that are understandable to everyone, and vocabulary of limited use, which includes professionalisms, dialectisms, jargon, terms, i.e. . words used in a certain area - professional, social, etc.

Professionalisms are words and expressions used by people of the same profession (journalists, electronics engineers, etc.). They are characterized by great detail in the designation of special concepts, tools, production processes, and materials.

Dialectal vocabulary is words that are limited territorially, included in the vocabulary of individual dialects, and understandable only to a resident of a given area.

Jargons are words and expressions that belong to some jargon. In modern linguistic literature, the word jargon is usually used to denote various branches of the national language, which serve as a means of communication for different social groups.

Terms are words that are the exact designation of a specific concept of any special field of science, technology, art, social life, etc. Let us recall that a concept is a thought about the general essential properties, connections and relationships of objects or phenomena of objective reality.

The clarity and intelligibility of speech also depend on the correct use of foreign words in it. Borrowing is a normal, natural phenomenon for any language. Borrowed words in a language appear as a result of communication between one people and another, as a result of political, economic and cultural ties between them.

The place of foreign words in the Russian language, their further fate is not the same and is determined by their purpose. Borrowings according to the degree of their penetration into the vocabulary of the Russian language can be divided into three groups.

The first of them consists of foreign words that have firmly entered the Russian language. They were borrowed a long time ago, adopted by all the people and are not perceived as foreign languages. The second group consists of words that are widespread in the Russian language and are also the only names of the designated concepts, but are recognized as foreign languages. The third group includes foreign words that are not widely used. These also include words that have Russian parallels, but also differ from them in volume, shade of meaning or sphere of use.

In the process of communication, people often have to explain how to understand what is being discussed, to clarify the meaning of a particular word or expression. Speech practice has developed several ways of explaining words. The most rational way to interpret words is considered to be a logical definition, i.e. definition of a concept through the closest genus and species difference.

The synonymous method is common, i.e. explanation using words that sound different but have a common meaning.

Quite often, when explaining a word, a descriptive method is used, in which its meaning is conveyed through a description of the object, concept, phenomenon itself.

When explaining the meaning of a word, it is sometimes good to turn to its etymology. Etymology teaches us to understand the true meaning of a word and clarifies it. Science not only establishes the original meaning of a word, its original meaning, but also explores the history of its use, the reasons for the changes that it has undergone.

Purity of speech

Expressiveness of speech

The expressiveness of speech enhances the effectiveness of the speech: vivid speech arouses interest among listeners, maintains attention to the subject of conversation, affects not only the mind, but also the feelings and imagination of listeners. A number of researchers emphasize that the expressiveness of speech largely depends on the communication situation.

Special artistic techniques, figurative and expressive means of language, traditionally called tropes and figures, as well as proverbs, sayings, phraseological expressions, and catchwords help the speaker make his speech figurative and emotional.

Before analyzing the various figurative means of language, it is necessary to clarify what properties the word has. The concept of word figurativeness is associated with the phenomenon of polysemy. Words that name only one object are considered unambiguous, and words that designate several objects or phenomena of reality are considered polysemantic. The first meaning with which the word appeared in the language is called direct, and the subsequent ones are figurative. Direct meanings are directly related to certain objects whose names they are. Figurative meanings, unlike direct ones, denote the facts of reality not directly, but through their relationship to the corresponding direct ones.

The concept of figurative use of words is associated with such artistic means as metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, widely used in oratory and oral communication.

The metaphor is based on the transfer of a name by similarity. Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification, reification, abstraction, etc. Metaphors must be original, unusual, evoke emotional associations, help to better understand and imagine an event or phenomenon.

Metonymy, unlike metaphor, is based on contiguity. With metonymy, two objects or phenomena that receive the same name must be adjacent. The word adjacent in this case should be understood not simply as a connection, but somewhat more broadly - closely related to each other. Synecdoche is a trope, the essence of which is that a part is called instead of a plural, or, conversely, a whole is called instead of a part, a plural is called instead of a singular.

Comparison is a figurative expression based on the comparison of two objects or states that have a common feature. Comparison assumes the presence of three data: object, image and sign.

Epithets are artistic definitions. They allow you to more clearly characterize the properties, qualities of an object or phenomenon and thereby enrich the content of the statement. In scientific literature, three types of epithets are usually distinguished: general linguistic (constantly used in literary language, have stable connections with the word being defined); folk-poetic (used in oral folk art); individually – copyright (created by the authors).

To enliven speech, give it emotionality, expressiveness, and imagery, they also use methods of stylistic syntax, the so-called figures: antithesis, inversion, repetition, etc.

A technique based on a comparison of opposing phenomena and signs is called antithesis. Antithesis is widely represented in proverbs and sayings. Antithesis is an effective means of verbal expressiveness in public speech. A valuable means of expressiveness in a speech is inversion, i.e. changing the usual word order in a sentence for semantic and stylistic purposes.

Often, to enhance the statement, give the speech dynamism, a certain rhythm, they resort to such a stylistic figure as repetition. Begin several sentences with the same word or group of words. This repetition is called anaphora, which translated from Greek means unity of speech.

In oral speech, repetitions also occur at the end of phrases. As at the beginning of a sentence, individual words, phrases, and speech structures can be repeated. Such a stylistic figure is called an epiphora. Techniques have been developed in the practice of oratory. One of these techniques is the question-response move. In addition to the question-and-answer technique, the so-called emotional or rhetorical question is often used. A rhetorical question enhances the impact of speech on listeners, awakens appropriate feelings in them, and carries a greater semantic and emotional load. Direct speech is also a means of expressiveness. Someone else's speech expressed verbatim is called a quotation. As a form of conveying someone else’s statement in a speech, indirect speech is also used, conveying someone’s words from a third person. Rich material for performances contains oral folk art. A real treasure for a speaker are proverbs and sayings. Proverbs and sayings are clots of folk wisdom; they express the truth, verified by the centuries-old history of the people - the creator, and the experience of many generations. To create imagery and emotionality of speech, the phraseology of the Russian language is used.

It must be remembered that the correctness of our speech, the accuracy of the language, the clarity of formulations, the skillful use of terms, foreign words, the successful use of figurative and expressive means of language, proverbs and sayings, catchwords, phraseological expressions, the wealth of an individual vocabulary, the effectiveness of communication, enhance the effectiveness of the spoken word .

Question 8

Question 9

Pleonasm. Tautology.

Pleonasm (from ancient Greek πλεονασμός - excessive, excess) - a turn of speech in which some element of meaning is duplicated; the presence of several linguistic forms expressing the same meaning within a complete segment of speech or text; as well as a linguistic expression in which there is such duplication. The term “pleonasm” comes from ancient stylistics and grammar. Ancient authors give different assessments of pleonasm. Quintilian, Donatus, Diomedes define pleonasm as overloading of speech with unnecessary words, and therefore as a stylistic defect. On the contrary, Dionysius of Halicarnassus defines this figure as the enrichment of speech with words that, at first glance, are superfluous, but in reality give it clarity, strength, rhythm, persuasiveness, and pathos, which are not feasible in laconic speech. Stylistic figures close to pleonasm are tautology and, partly, periphrasis. The relationship between the terms pleonasm and tautology is understood by linguists differently. Pleonasm is a linguistic term, tautology is both linguistic and logical (although in logic this word is used in a completely different sense). Pleonasm is found in folklore: once upon a time, sadness-longing, path-path, sea-ocean. This device is also widely used in fiction, usually for the purpose of specifying the details of the narrative or enhancing emotions and assessments: Indeed, extremely strange! - said the official, - the place is completely smooth, as if it were a freshly baked pancake. Yes, incredibly smooth! (N. Gogol, “The Nose”); The old fear again gripped him all over, from head to toe (F. Dostoevsky, “Crime and Punishment”); “I haven’t seen you for a whole week, I haven’t heard from you for so long.” I crave, I crave your voice. Speak. (A. Chekhov, “Ionych”).2. A type of lexical error associated with a violation of the norms of lexical compatibility, when words that are unnecessary from a semantic point of view are used in a phrase or sentence. For example, in the sentence They ensured the rhythmic and uninterrupted operation of the enterprise, the definitions express similar meanings; here one of them is sufficient. The author's inscription on the cover of the book Dedicated to my dad - Sergei Mikhailovich is pleonastic; Enough Dedicated to my dad...

Typical examples of non-normative pleonasm are phrases in which the meaning of one word repeats the meaning of another: more important (more redundant, since more important means “more important”), first premiere (premiere is sufficient - “the first performance of a play, film or performance of a musical work”), atmospheric air (enough air - “a mixture of gases that forms the Earth’s atmosphere”), ultimately (correctly ultimately or sufficiently ultimately), return back (the verb return indicates movement back, in the opposite direction), import from abroad (it is enough to import – “import from abroad”).

Some pleonastic phrases are fixed in the language and are not considered erroneous, for example: go down, go up, period of time, exhibit of an exhibition (Latin exponatus means “exhibited”), popular democracy (democracy translated from Greek as “power of the people”).

In fiction and journalism, non-normative lexical redundancy can act as a means of speech characterization of characters: “You laugh and bare your teeth,” said Vasya, “but I really, Marya Vasilievna, adore and love you passionately (M. Zoshchenko, “Love”).

TAUTOLOGY (Greek - the same and - word) - a type of pleonasm; use of cognates words in a sentence or text.

The tautology is found in proverbs and sayings: Friendship is friendship, and service is service; Living life is not a field to cross; Free will; in phraseological units: to walk around, to be jam-packed, to eat. Expressively colored tautological combinations are characteristic of folklore: Soon the tale is told, but not soon the deed is done; sit still, bitter grief. The deliberate use of cognate words serves as a means of lexical expressiveness in fiction and journalism: “I will laugh with my bitter laughter” (N. Gogol); “How smart the mind is, how efficient the work is, // How terrible is the fear, how dark is the darkness! // How life is alive! How deadly death is! // How young is youth!” (Z. Ezrohi), “The law is the law” (from the newspaper).

A tautology is a lexical error if the use of cognate words is not justified by stylistic purposes and is of an accidental nature: to connect together, to dance a dance, to treat sports in a sporting way, to confirm a statement. Usually an unintentional tautology is said to be like this: oil is oil.

Question 10

Classification of synonyms

Synonyms, pointing to the same concept and having the same lexical meaning, differ in their expressive coloring, assignment to a certain style, and frequency of use.

Many synonyms differ from each other in both lexical meaning and expressive coloring. Thus, synonyms can be differentiated:

According to the subjects they designate [the synonyms “buffoon - actor - comedian - actor - artist" reflect different moments in the development of theater and different attitudes towards the profession of an actor (cf. next point)

According to the social assessment of the designated subject (synonyms “salary - wages” reflect different attitudes towards the remuneration received for work);

According to applicability in a particular style of speech (synonyms “horse - horse” are not always stylistically reversible; in the verse “Where are you galloping, proud horse?” substitution of the synonym “horse” will produce a comic effect - “Where are you galloping, proud horse?”) ;

According to the etymological meaning, which can give one of the synonyms a special coloring (the synonyms “brave - fearless” connect the general concept of courage in the first case with “daring”, “determination”, in the second - with “lack of fear”; therefore, these synonyms in a certain context can be used as words of opposite meaning, as antonyms);

According to the presence or absence of figurative meanings: for example, in the famous epigram K. N. Batyushkov. Advice to an epic poet:

“Give me whatever name you want

Your semi-wild poem

“Peter the Long”, “Peter the Great”, but only “Peter the Great”

Don’t call her.” the first of the synonyms “big - great” lacks a figurative meaning.

Homonyms(ancient Greek ὁμός - identical + ὄνομα - name) - words, morphemes and other units of language that are different in meaning, but identical in sound and spelling. The term was introduced by Aristotle. Not to be confused with homophones, homographs and paronyms.

In relation to words belonging to the same parts of speech, in linguistics they often distinguish between homonymy and polysemy. Homonymy is the random coincidence of words, while polysemy is the presence of different historically related meanings for a word. For example, the words “boron” in the meaning of “pine forest” and “boron” in the meaning of “chemical element” are homonyms, since the first word is of Slavic origin, and the second arose from the Persian “borax” - the name of one of the boron compounds. At the same time, for example, linguists call the words “ether” in the sense of organic matter and “ether” in the sense of “radio broadcasting and television” the meanings of one word, that is, polysemy, since both come from ancient Greek. αἰθήρ - mountain air. However, another part of linguists draws the line between polysemy and homonymy in a different way. Namely, if most people see a common shade of meaning in two coinciding words (as linguists say, “a common semantic element”), then this is polysemy, and if they do not see it, then this is homonymy, even if the words have a common origin. For example, in the words “braid” (tool) and “braid” (hairstyle), the common semantic element most people notice is “something long and thin.” Finally, some linguists consider all individual meanings of polysemantic words to be homonyms. In this case, polysemy is a special case of homonymy.

All or almost all Russian linguists certainly classify coinciding words belonging to different parts of speech as homonyms. Examples of such homonyms are “flow” (leak) and “flow” (leakage).

Classification

· Complete (absolute) homonyms are homonyms in which the entire system of forms coincides. For example, outfit (clothing) - outfit (order), forge (blacksmith) -bugle (wind instrument).

· Partial homonyms are homonyms in which not all forms coincide. For example, weasel (animal) And caress (show of tenderness) diverge in the genitive plural form ( caresses - caress).

· Grammatical homonyms, or homophores, are words that coincide only in certain forms (of the same part of speech or different parts of speech). For example, the numeral three and verb three coincide only in two forms (to three - we are three, three apples - three are stronger!).

Question 11

Question 12

Question 13

Functional styles.

The level of division of a literary language is the division of each of its varieties - book and spoken languages - into functional styles. According to V.V. Vinogradov’s definition, a functional style is “a socially conscious and functionally conditioned, internally unified set of techniques for using, selecting and combining means of speech communication in the sphere of a particular popular, national language, correlated with other similar methods of expression that serve for other purposes, perform other functions in the speech social practice of a given people.” In short, variants of the literary language, determined by various spheres of communication, are functional styles.

In the modern Russian book literary language, the following functional styles are distinguished: scientific, official business, journalistic, religious preaching.

Spoken language is not so clearly divided into functional styles, which is quite understandable: book language is consciously cultivated, society as a whole and its various groups and institutions are interested in the functional flexibility of book language (without this, the effective development of such spheres of public life as science, lawmaking is impossible , office work, mass communication, etc.); spoken language develops spontaneously, without directional efforts from society. However, here too some differences can be observed, determined by (a) the scope of the spoken language, (b) the communicative purposes of speech, (c) the social characteristics of the speaker and listener and the psychological relationships between them, as well as some other variables.

Thus, family conversations and dialogues between colleagues differ; conversation with a child and communication between adults; speech acts of condemnation or reproach and speech acts of request or exhortation, etc.

Characteristic properties of literary language. So, the literary language is characterized by the following properties that distinguish it from other subsystems of the national language:

1) normalization; Moreover, the literary norm is the result not only of linguistic tradition, but also of purposeful codification, enshrined in grammars and dictionaries;

2) consistent functional differentiation of means and the associated constant tendency towards functional differentiation of options;

LANGUAGE AS A SIGN SYSTEM 1. Sign character of language

The words of human language are signs of objects and concepts. Words are the most numerous and main signs in a language. Other units of language are also signs.

A sign is a substitute for an object for the purpose of communication; a sign allows the speaker to evoke an image of an object or concept in the mind of the interlocutor.

The sign has the following properties:

the sign must be material, accessible to perception;

the sign is directed towards the meaning;

a sign is always a member of a system, and its content largely depends on the place of a given sign in the system.

The above properties of the sign determine a number of requirements for the culture of speech.

Firstly, the speaker (writer) must take care that the signs of his speech (sounding words or writing signs) are convenient for perception: sufficiently clearly audible, visible.

Secondly, it is necessary that the signs of speech express some content, convey meaning, and in such a way that the form of speech makes it easier to understand the content of speech.

Thirdly, it is necessary to keep in mind that the interlocutor may be less knowledgeable about the subject of the conversation, which means that it is necessary to provide him with the missing information, which only in the opinion of the speaker is already contained in the spoken words.

Fourthly, it is important to ensure that the sounds of spoken speech and the letters of writing are clearly distinguished from each other.

Fifthly, it is important to remember the systemic connections of a word with other words, take into account polysemy, use synonymy, and keep in mind the associative connections of words.

Thus, knowledge from the field of semiotics (the science of signs) contributes to improving speech culture.

A language sign can be a code sign and a text sign.

Code signs exist in the form of a system of units opposed in a language, connected by a relationship of significance, which determines the content of the signs specific to each language.

Text characters exist in the form of a formally and meaningfully related sequence of units. Speech culture presupposes the speaker's attentive attitude to the coherence of the spoken or written text.

Meaning is the content of a linguistic sign, formed as a result of the reflection of extra-linguistic reality in the minds of people. The meaning of a language unit in the language system is virtual, i.e. determined by what the unit can stand for. In a specific statement, the meaning of a linguistic unit becomes relevant, since the unit correlates with a specific object, with what it actually means in the statement. From the point of view of speech culture, it is important for the speaker to clearly direct the interlocutor’s attention to updating the meaning of the statement, to help him correlate the statement with the situation, and for the listener it is important to show maximum attention to the communicative intentions of the speaker.

There is a distinction between objective and conceptual meaning.

Subject meaning consists in the correlation of a word with an object, in the designation of an object.

Conceptual meaning serves to express a concept that reflects an object, to define a class of objects denoted by a sign.

2. Natural and artificial languages

The signs that are part of languages as means of communication in society are called signs of communication. Signs of communication are divided into signs of natural languages and signs of artificial sign systems (artificial languages).

Signs of natural languages consist of both sound signs and corresponding writing signs (handwritten, typographical, typewritten, printer, screen).

In natural languages of communication - national languages - there are rules of grammar in a more or less explicit form, and rules of meaning and use - in an implicit form. For written speech, there are also spelling and punctuation rules enshrined in codes and reference books.

In artificial languages, both the rules of grammar and the rules of meaning and use are specified explicitly in the corresponding descriptions of these languages.

Artificial languages arose in connection with the development of science and technology; they are used in the professional activities of specialists. Artificial languages include systems of mathematical and chemical symbols. They serve as a means not only of communication, but also of generating new knowledge.

Among artificial sign systems, we can distinguish code systems designed for encoding ordinary speech. These include Morse code, maritime flag signaling of letters of the alphabet, and various codes.

A special group consists of artificial languages designed to control the operation of computer systems - programming languages. They have a strict system structure and formalized rules for correlating code characters and meaning, providing for the computer system to perform exactly those operations that are required.

Signs of artificial languages can themselves constitute texts or be included in written texts in a natural language. Many artificial languages have international use and are included in texts in various natural national languages. Of course, it is appropriate to include signs of artificial languages only in texts addressed to specialists familiar with these languages.

The natural sound language of people is the most complete and perfect of all communication systems. Other sign systems created by man embody only some of the properties of natural language. These systems can significantly strengthen the language and surpass it in one or more respects, but at the same time inferior to it in others (Yu. S. Stepanov. Language and method. - M.: 1998. P. 52).

For example, the system of mathematical symbols surpasses natural language in the brevity of recording information and the minimum number of code signs. Programming languages are characterized by clear rules and an unambiguous correspondence between meaning and form.

In turn, natural language is much more flexible, open and dynamic.

Natural language is applicable to describe any situations, including those that have not yet been the object of description using this language.

Natural language allows the speaker to generate new signs that are understandable to the interlocutor, as well as to use existing signs with new meanings, which is impossible in artificial languages.

Natural language is known throughout the entire national society, and not just to a narrow circle of specialists.

Natural language quickly adapts to the diverse needs of interpersonal interaction between people and therefore is the main and generally irreplaceable means of human communication.

3. Basic functions of the language

“Being the most important means of communication, language unites people, regulates their interpersonal and social interaction, coordinates their practical activities, participates in the formation of ideological systems and national images of the world, ensures the accumulation and storage of information, including those related to the history and historical experience of the people and personal experience of the individual, dismembers, classifies and consolidates concepts, forms the consciousness and self-awareness of a person, serves as a material and form of artistic creativity" (N.D. Arutyunova. Functions of language. // Russian language. Encyclopedia. - M.: 1997. P. 609) .

The main functions of the language are:

Communicative (communication function);

Thought-forming (function of embodiment and expression of thoughts);

Expressive (function of expressing the internal state of the speaker);

Aesthetic (the function of creating beauty through language).

Language also has special means of establishing and maintaining contact between participants in communication.

From the point of view of the culture of speech, the communicative function presupposes the orientation of the participants in speech communication towards the fruitfulness and mutual usefulness of communication, as well as a general focus on the adequacy of speech understanding.

Achieving functional communication efficiency is impossible without knowledge and compliance with the norms of the literary language.

The thought-forming function is that language serves as a means of designing and expressing thoughts. The structure of language is organically connected with the categories of thinking.

“The word, which alone is capable of making a concept an independent unit in the world of thoughts, adds a lot of its own to it,” wrote the founder of linguistics W. von Humboldt (W. Humboldt. Selected works on linguistics. M.: 1984. P. 318).

The expressive function presupposes the emotional brightness of speech within the framework of socially accepted etiquette.

Artificial languages do not have an expressive function.

The aesthetic function presupposes the richness and expressiveness of speech, its compliance with the aesthetic tastes of the educated part of society.

4. Russian as a world language

At the beginning of the 21st century, over 250 million people in the world speak Russian to one degree or another. The bulk of Russian speakers live in Russia (143.7 million according to the 1989 All-Union Population Census) and in other states (88.8 million) that were part of the USSR.

Representatives of different nations of the world speak Russian, communicating not only with Russians, but also with each other.

Just like English and some other languages, Russian is widely used outside of Russia. It is used in various areas of international communication: at negotiations between CIS member countries, at forums of international organizations, including the UN, in global communication systems (on television, on the Internet), in international aviation and space communications. Russian is the language of international scientific communication and is used at many international scientific conferences in the humanities and natural sciences.

The Russian language ranks fifth in the world in terms of the absolute number of speakers (after Chinese, Hindi and Urdu together, English and Spanish), but this is not the main feature in determining the world language. What is important for a “world language” is not the sheer number of people who speak it, especially as a native speaker, but the global distribution of native speakers, its coverage of different, maximum number of countries, as well as the most influential social strata of the population in different countries. Of great importance is the universal human significance of fiction, of the entire culture created in a given language (Kostomarov V.G. Russian language in international communication.//Russian language. Encyclopedia. M.: 1997. P. 445).

Russian is studied as a foreign language in many countries around the world. Russian language and literature are studied at leading universities in the USA, Germany, France, China and other countries.

The Russian language, like other “world languages,” is highly informative, i.e. wide possibilities of expression and transmission of thoughts. The information value of a language depends on the quality and quantity of information presented in a given language in original and translated publications.

The traditional sphere of use of the Russian language outside the Russian Federation was the republics within the Soviet Union; it was studied in the countries of Eastern Europe (Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, East Germany), as well as by students from around the world who studied in the USSR.

After the start of reforms in Russia, the country became more open to international contacts. Russian citizens began to travel abroad more often, and foreigners began to visit Russia more often. The Russian language has begun to attract more attention in some foreign countries. It is being studied in Europe and the USA, India and China.

Interest in the Russian language abroad largely depends on both political factors (the stability of the social situation in Russia, the development of democratic institutions, readiness for dialogue with foreign partners) and cultural factors (interest in foreign languages and cultures in Russia, improvement of forms and methods teaching Russian language).

In the context of the expansion of international communication in Russian, the quality of speech of people for whom Russian is their native language becomes a significant factor in its further development, since speech errors of native native speakers are perceived by people studying Russian as a language of interethnic communication or as a foreign language, as correct speech patterns, as the norm of Russian speech.

The integration processes taking place in the modern world contribute to increasing the role of “world languages” and deepening interaction between them. There is a growing international fund of scientific, technical and cultural vocabulary, common to many languages. Computer terms and vocabulary related to sports, tourism, goods and services are becoming widespread worldwide.

In the process of interaction of languages, the Russian language is replenished with international vocabulary, and itself is a source of lexical borrowings for the languages of neighboring countries.

Russian language and electronic written speech in computer technologies

The globalization of processes of communicative cooperation in the modern world as a result of the spread of computer networks leads to an expansion in the number of people using “world” languages in communication. This leads, on the one hand, to the universalization and standardization of means of communication and language use skills, and on the other hand, to the rapid spread of individual and regional characteristics of speech as a result of the lack of editorial and proofreading in the electronic communication environment. The inconsistency of these trends, caused by new conditions of communication, leads to the emergence of new factors affecting the development of the language, contributing to both its enrichment and the decline of speech culture. In these new conditions, it becomes especially important to take care of the correctness of electronic written speech, adherence to the traditions of written communication, and attention to the functional and stylistic differentiation of speech genres.

New conditions of communication increase the responsibility of each person for the fate of his native language and other languages that he uses in communication, the correctness of their use, and the technical capabilities of computer technology help modern people to check the correct spelling and accuracy of the use of words, edit and beautifully format the text. However, no technology will help fill the text with the necessary content, make a person’s speech spiritual, beautiful not only in form, but also in essence.

Freedom of speech is a necessary but not sufficient condition for speech to improve people's lives. Therefore, in the new conditions of oral (public, television, interactive) and written (electronic) communication, the role of speech culture should increase and, above all, thanks to the deep internal awareness of the participants in the information exchange of their personal role and responsibility for how their native language and others will develop. languages that people use.

5. Russian language as the state language

In accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation (1993), Russian is the state language of the Russian Federation throughout its territory. At the same time, Russian is the state or official language of a number of republics that are part of the Russian Federation, along with the language of the indigenous population of these republics.

Knowledge of the state language is mandatory for officials of government agencies; it is in it that all official documentation is compiled.

As the state language, Russian actively functions in all spheres of public life that have national significance. Central and local institutions at the federal level operate in Russian, and communication between the subjects of the federation is carried out. The Russian language is used in the army, the central and local press, on television, in education and science, in culture and sports.

Russian is the second state language in Belarus and the official language in Kazakhstan.

The connection of the Russian language with the history and culture of the people

Language is not only a system of signs, but also a historically established form of culture of a people. According to W. Humboldt, “language is not a dead clockwork, but a living creation emanating from itself” (W. Humboldt. Selected works on linguistics. M.: 1984. P. 275). Natural language does not arise as a result of the mathematical calculation of a group of “language creators,” but as a result of centuries-old efforts of people belonging to the same national community to make their speech generally understandable within the national community.

The Russian language has evolved over many centuries. His vocabulary and grammatical structure were not formed immediately. The dictionary gradually included new lexical units, the appearance of which was dictated by the new needs of social development. The grammatical system gradually adapted to a more accurate and subtle transmission of thought following the development of national social and scientific thinking. Thus, the needs of cultural development became the engine of language development, and the language reflected and preserved the history of the cultural life of the nation, including those stages that are already a thing of the past.

Thanks to this, language is for the people a unique means of preserving national identity, the largest historical and cultural value.

As W. Humboldt wrote, “language, no matter what form it takes, is always the spiritual embodiment of the individual life of a nation” (W. Humboldt. Selected works on linguistics. M.: 1984. P. 72) and moreover, “language is breath , the very soul of the nation" (ibid., p. 303). Thus, speech culture is an important part of the national culture as a whole.

Bibliography

To prepare this work, materials were used from the site http://websites.pfu.edu.ru/IDO/ffec/

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The entire modern way of the world consists of many separate systems. If you haven’t thought about it yet, just imagine: everything that we are used to reading, understanding and interpreting are all signs. Man came up with special combinations of them in order to record, store and perceive information.

In order for there not to be a countless number of symbols, like various phenomena in this world, special structures were created. It is them that we are going to consider in this article, as well as give a vivid and understandable example of a sign system. This linguistic topic will be of interest not only to specialists. Let’s start looking at it sequentially so that all the data is perceived easily and simply.

Definition

Before considering in detail any example of a sign system, we consider it necessary to understand what kind of phenomenon it is.

So, a sign system is a certain set of basically similar signs that has an internal structure and, to some extent, explicit laws of formation, interpretation and use of its elements. Its main task is to provide full-fledged collective and individual communication processes.

At the same time, it is worth remembering what, in fact, a sign is - a material object that becomes a substitute (embodiment) of another object, phenomenon, property. It records, stores and perceives information (which we also call knowledge).

Types of sign systems

Theoretical studies of semiotics have classified the currently functioning data transmission structures as follows:

Natural;

Verbal;

Functional;

Iconic;

Conventional;

Recording systems.

We will touch on these types in more detail after we consider the next question - what is language as a sign system. For now, let’s focus on the criteria on the basis of which they are distinguished.

Signs

We are already a sign system, but we have only become familiar with the abstract definition of the term. As a very broad category, it does not include all the elements called signs. So, what signs allow her to be such?

Firstly, in any system at least two signs must be combined.
Secondly, the elements must be systematized according to a certain principle.
Thirdly, the emergence of new elements can only occur according to a clearly defined principle.

Study of signs and sign systems

A separate science deals with issues of sign structures - semiotics. In essence, it is a border discipline between linguistics, sociology, literature, psychology, and biology.

Study in semiotics is carried out in three main directions, which are designated as branches of science:

Syntactics. The object of study is the objective laws of sign systems, the relationships between their elements, the patterns of their combination and formation.
Semantics. It studies meaning, in other words, it examines the relationship between a sign and its meaning.
Pragmatics. Examines the relationship between a system and the entities using it.

One of the individual aspects of the study - This concept is due to the fact that in any culture there is information transmitted through signs. As a rule, this applies to texts. It is noteworthy that the text of culture in the concept of this science is any information carrier.

Language as a system of signs in semiotics

We all deal with language every day. We may not have thought about it before, but statements formed from words, syllables and letters (sounds in spoken language) are all a system. Semiotics gives it its comprehensive interpretation.

Language is a sign formation that serves to store the transmission and accumulation of information, which has a physical nature. Its functions are communication and obtaining information in the process of diverse human activities.

In turn, different sign codes are used within the language, for example transcription, sign language, shorthand, and others. Languages in semiotics - according to the most general criterion - are divided into natural and artificial. Let's continue to delve into the topic of what the sign system of language is.

Semiotics about language

As we see, language is the closest example of a sign structure to us. In addition, in semiotics it is also the most important phenomenon, occupying a special place among other auxiliary systems. Language is not only a means of expressing information, but also the design of human thoughts, emotions, a way of expressing will, that is, the range of functions performed is extremely wide.

At the same time, for comparison: specialized sign systems (by the way, they are usually artificial) transmit only information limited in type and quantity or perform its recoding.

The scope of language use is also special in comparison with specialized formations. It affects absolutely all areas of scientific and practical activity. Specialized sign structures, on the contrary, are narrowly focused.

Language is formed and develops in the process of use, obeying internal laws and external influences. Special sign systems are the result of a one-time agreement between people and are completely artificial.

Natural and artificial languages

The functions of the language are much broader in comparison with other systems. We also mentioned that the main criterion for dividing languages classifies them into artificial and natural. Now let's look at these two types of languages in a little more detail.

So, natural language is the one that appeared with man. Its development occurs naturally, a person does not have a conscious effect on it.

About artificial languages, as one might guess, let’s say that they are systems purposefully created by man for specialized purposes. The creation of artificial systems is due to the fact that in some cases it is ineffective or even impossible to use natural language tools.

On the issue of artificial languages

We have already learned enough in our discussion of the topic: “Language as a sign system.” We consider the features of artificial languages interesting. Their classification includes such subspecies as:

Planned languages - methods of international communication; have an auxiliary function; This is the well-known Esperanto, to which a lively interest flared up in the last century;

Symbolic languages - mathematical signs, physical, logical, chemical;

Human-machine communication languages - these include programming languages.

Semiotics as a science

The study of signs is the subject of a special science - semiotics, which studies the emergence, structure and functioning of various systems that store and transmit information. Semiotics studies natural and artificial languages, as well as the general principles that form the basis of the structure of all signs.

Science considers language in a broad sense, that is, it covers both natural and artificial ones. Natural ones are considered to be primary modeling systems. Cultural languages are secondary, since through them a person socializes informationally, perceives knowledge and influences the world around him.

Secondary modeling systems are also called cultural codes. - cultural code: cultural texts, with the exception of natural language. To understand these phenomena, it is worth naming examples more specifically. Thus, behavioral models, religious texts, beliefs, rituals, units (objects, works) of art - all these are secondary modeling systems.

Such systems are built in the image of natural language, but are used as artificial ones: in a certain field of activity, for the exchange of specific information. Such sign systems are studied deliberately, some of them are available only in certain social groups. For comparison, let us remember that natural language is a universal property.

Typology, features, examples

Earlier in our article we looked at various issues related to a given topic - the sign system, examples of it, categories of definition. Now let’s touch on their types in a little more detail, giving examples for clarity. They will apply not only to languages.

Natural signs are natural phenomena, certain things that can point us to other phenomena, objects, assessments. They carry information about the image they embody. They can also be called signs. For example, the natural sign of fire would be smoke. To interpret them correctly, you need to have some information.

Such that they represent images of things and phenomena that they reflect. Otherwise, we can call them image signs. They are often created artificially, purposefully giving them a characteristic shape. We see good examples of sign-images in music: imitation of thunder, birdsong, wind noise, etc. Only this display is not based on form, but on another criterion - material.

Functional signs are those that have a pragmatic function. What makes them signs is that a person includes them in his activities. They can serve as a part from which you can obtain information about the entire mechanism. The fact that the teacher opens the class magazine is a sign of an upcoming survey of those present. Other, secondary meanings of functional signs are reflected in signs - a black cat crossing the road means trouble, a horseshoe brings happiness.

The warning signs are intuitive: they are warning signs. We all know well the meanings of traffic light colors, for example.

Conventional signs are artificial, created by people to designate certain phenomena. They may not be similar at all to the subject of the designation. So, a red cross means an ambulance, a zebra means a pedestrian crossing, etc.

Verbal sign systems are spoken languages. We spoke separately about language as a sign system. We gave an example of the sign system of language above.

Symbols are compact signs pointing to an object or phenomenon that also have a second meaning. Their task is to identify objects in a number of similar ones. Example: legend of a geographical map, state attributes - flag, coat of arms, anthem.

Indexes are compact designations of objects and phenomena. Sometimes they also have a shape similar to the object of designation.

Conclusion

In our article we touched on a very broad topic: “What is a sign system”, we also gave examples, and also paid special attention to language. We considered the classification relevant to the modern stage of development of semiotics.

Now you know what language is as a sign system, we have also covered the functions of language and the purposes of its use. At the same time, we looked at the most general classification - they are artificial and natural. And they concluded that language is a sign system that serves to store, transmit and build up information. We hope the linguistic-semiotic topic was interesting to you too!

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