Archaeologists divide the history of mankind into the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages. Using. Archaeological periodization and chronology Division of human history into centuries


Stone Age

The history of the Slavs goes back to ancient times, to that very long period of development of human society, which is called the primitive communal system. One of the most common periodizations of this formation is archaeological, i.e. dividing it into the Stone Age, Copper-Stone (Chalcolithic), Bronze and Early Iron Ages. This periodization is based on the principle of the predominance of one or another material in the production of tools. The Stone Age, the longest in human history, is also divided into the Paleolithic - the Old Stone Age, the Mesolithic - the Middle Stone Age and the Neolithic - the New Stone Age. In turn, the Paleolithic is divided into early (lower) and late (upper).

In the Early Paleolithic era, the process of anthropogenesis—the emergence and development of “Homo sapiens”—is underway. According to the scientific approach, man emerged from the animal kingdom thanks to labor and the systematic production of tools. In the process of work, the human hand improved, speech appeared and began to develop. Over the past decades, science has increasingly made the phenomenon of humanization of our bestial ancestors more ancient, which in turn forces us to look for answers to new questions. The missing links of anthropogenesis are filled in with new finds, but new gaps also appear.

The first ancestors of humans who embarked on a long path of development were monkeys - Australopithecus. As for the most ancient people (archanthropes), then, judging by the finds in Africa in recent decades, their appearance dates back to a time distant from us by 2 - 2.5 million years. At the end of the Early Paleolithic, about 100 thousand years ago, Neanderthal man appeared, named after the first find in Germany. Neanderthals are paleoanthropes; they are much closer to modern humans than the archanthropes that preceded them. Neanderthals spread very widely. Their sites on the territory of our country were discovered in the Caucasus, Crimea, Central Asia, Kazakhstan, in the lower reaches of the Dnieper and Don, near Volgograd. Glaciation began to play a major role in human development, changing the composition of animals and the appearance of flora. Neanderthals learned to make fire, which was a huge achievement for emerging humanity. Apparently, they already had the first rudiments of ideological ideas. In the Teshik-Tash cave in Uzbekistan, the dead man was surrounded by the horns of a mountain goat. There are burials in which the bodies of the dead are oriented along the east-west line.

In the Late Paleolithic (40-35 thousand years ago), a modern type of man (Cro-Magnon man) was formed. These people have already significantly improved the technique of making stone tools: they are becoming much more diverse, sometimes miniature. A throwing spear appears, which significantly increased the efficiency of hunting. Art is born. Rock paintings served magical purposes. Images of rhinoceroses, mammoths, horses, etc. were painted on the walls of caves using a mixture of natural ocher and animal glue. (for example, Kapova Cave in Bashkiria).

During the Paleolithic era, the forms of human communities gradually changed. From the primitive human herd - to the tribal system, which arose in the Late Paleolithic. The basic unit of human society becomes the clan community, which is characterized by common ownership of the main means of production.

The transition to the Middle Stone Age - Mesolithic on our territory began in the XII-X millennia BC, and ended in the VII-V millennia BC. At this time, humanity made many discoveries. The most important invention was the bow and arrow, which led to the possibility of not driven, but individual hunting, and for small animals. The first steps were taken towards cattle breeding. The dog was tamed. Some scholars suggest that pigs, goats and sheep were domesticated at the end of the Mesolithic.

Cattle breeding as a type of economic activity was formed only in the Neolithic, when agriculture also began. The transition to a productive economy has such extraordinary significance for humanity and, on the scale of the Stone Age, occurred so quickly that it allows scientists to even talk about the Neolithic “revolution.” The range of stone tools is expanding and improving, but fundamentally new materials are also appearing. Thus, in the Neolithic, the production of ceramics, still molded, without a potter's wheel, was mastered. Weaving was also mastered. The boat was invented and the beginning of shipping was laid. In the Neolithic, the tribal system reached a higher stage of development - large associations of clans - tribes - were created, intertribal exchange and intertribal connections appeared.

Age of Copper and Bronze

The development of metals was a real revolution in the life of mankind. The first metal that people learned to mine was copper. The appearance of copper tools intensified the exchange between tribes, since copper deposits are distributed very unevenly across the earth. The Neolithic community was already much less closed than the Paleolithic community. This time is called the Eneolithic Age. Over time, people learned to create new alloys based on copper - bronze appeared. During the times of copper and bronze in the forest-steppe zone in the territory of modern Ukraine and Moldova in the 3rd millennium BC. dominated by the so-called Trypillian culture, which arose at the end of the 4th millennium BC. In the steppe zone of Russia, the most ancient was the Yamnaya, and in the Bronze Age the Catacomb and Timber-frame cultures were added, which differ significantly in the type of funeral rite and a number of elements of material culture. In the North Caucasus in the 2nd millennium BC. Maikop culture dominated. It was at this time that a major social division of labor occurred - the pastoral tribes began to separate from the agricultural ones. All these peoples are known to us from the so-called “archaeological cultures”. Scientists already use this concept for the Neolithic tribes and denote a set of monuments that belong to the same territory and era, have common features - in forms of social life, in tools, dwellings, funeral rites, ornaments, etc. Typically, archaeological culture, to one degree or another, corresponds to an ethnic community - a group of related tribes.

Age of Iron

But for the next era, we also know the names of those peoples who lived on the territory of our country. In the 1st millennium BC. The first iron tools appear. The most developed cultures of the Early Iron Age are known in the Black Sea steppes - they were left by the Cimmerians, the Tauri - the autochthonous population of the Crimea, the Scythians, and the Sarmatians. Our knowledge about these peoples is quite extensive, not only because numerous archaeological sites associated with them have already been excavated, but also because they came into contact with peoples who had writing. Such were the ancient Greeks. Already in the second half of the 7th century. BC. Greek settlements appeared on the territory of the Northern Black Sea region. These were colonies that were founded by people from one or another metropolis, i.e. polis of mainland Greece. There are different explanations for the reasons for the emigration of the Greeks, but it is important to emphasize that in new places the settlers reproduced the same forms of socio-political life that were familiar to them. These were classical ancient Greek city-states with a democratic structure (only free people enjoyed political rights). The rulers were elected by the people's assembly, and around the city there was an agricultural district - the chora. Near the Dnieper-Bug estuary, Olbia appears, which was founded by immigrants from the city of Miletus. On the site of present-day Sevastopol was Tauric Chersonesus, on the site of Kerch - Panticapaeum. There were also a significant number of Greek colonies on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus.

The Greeks had to enter into certain relationships with local tribes. The Cimmerians were eventually supplanted by the Scythians (their related tribes - the Sakas and Massagetae - lived all the way to Central Asia). The famous Greek historian - “father of history” - Herodotus identified a number of tribal groups among the Scythians, who generally belonged to the Iranians, which differed in the nature of their occupations. The Scythians at that time had fairly developed social relations; their tribal union even managed to repel the attempt of the Persian king Darius to conquer the Black Sea region. They had developed trade, and in their mounds, some of which resemble small Egyptian pyramids in size, outstanding works of ancient applied art were found.

However, from the 3rd century. BC e. the related Iranian-speaking tribes of the Sauromatians (Sarmatians) begin to attack them, who had an advantage in weapons - they were armed with long iron swords, which made it possible to cut directly from a horse, unlike the Scythians, who, in order to use their short “akinaki”, had to dismount . In the II-I centuries. BC. The Sarmatians conquered a significant part of the territory of the Northern Black Sea region. The steppe Crimea remains in the hands of the Scythians, where a new kingdom arises - Scythian Naples, led by a significantly Hellenized Scythian elite. The kings of the Scythian kingdom tried to subjugate the Greek city-states. The only real opponent of the Scythians could be the Bosporan state, which arose on the basis of the Greek colony of Panticapaeum back in the 5th century. BC. Initially it was a union of independent city-states (Tanais at the mouth of the Don, Phanagoria on the Taman Peninsula, etc.). But gradually a firm central authority is being established here. Archon Siartoh (304-284 BC) began to call himself king. But when Chersonesos. concluded an alliance with the Bosporus against the advancing Scythians, it turned out that this state did not have enough strength to fight. Then the Chersonesos turned to the Kingdom of Pontus, a Hellenistic state that by that time had become the largest in Asia Minor. The Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator annexed the Bosporus and Chersonese to his power, defeating the Scythians and Taurians. In fact, the entire Northern Black Sea region became part of the Pontic Kingdom. However, Mithridates himself died in the fight against Rome, and with his death the power of the Pontic kingdom over the Northern Black Sea region collapsed. Now imperial Rome has extended its hand here. Already in the 3rd century. AD The Bosporus managed to free itself from the power of Rome, but at the end of the 4th century. he fell under the blows of the nomadic Huns,

So, in the Early Iron Age we can talk about ethnic groups. However, certain ethnic and cultural areas began to take shape already in the Upper Paleolithic era. However, there is no material to judge the linguistic and ethnic affiliation of the tribes of the Stone, Copper and Bronze Ages. In general, ethnogenesis - the process of the origin and development of a particular ethnic group - is one of the most difficult problems in science. The roots of the origin of this or that people are lost in ancient times. Numerous migrations, mixing, and assimilation make the work of the researcher even more difficult. The ethnic classification of peoples is based on linguistic differences between them, i.e. language. In the early Iron Age, the territory of our country was inhabited by peoples of different language families: Indo-European, Ural-Samoyedic, Altai, Caucasian. Families are divided into smaller units - groups. So, in the Ural-Samoyed - Samoyed and Finno-Ugric, in the Altai - Turkic and a number of others; in Indo-European: Iranian, Romance, Germanic, Baltic and Slavic.



NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION. The first cattle breeders, farmers, artisans. Material for independent work and project activities

Questions in the text

1. Why is the transition to a productive economy considered the most important event in human history?

The transition to a productive economy is considered an important event in human history because it radically changed people's lives. This transition influenced not only the form of management, but also the development of tools and the structure of society. It led to the collapse of the primitive communal system, the emergence and unification of neighboring communities, and subsequently to the formation of ethnic groups.

2. In what region of the Earth did agriculture and cattle breeding first appear?

According to modern data, agriculture first appeared in the Middle East and Southeast Asia, and cattle breeding first appeared in Asia (India and Indochina).

3. Why is the transition to a producing economy called a revolution? What do they want to emphasize by using this word?

With the word “revolution” they want to emphasize the importance of the transition from an appropriating economy to a producing economy.

Questions for the paragraph

1. What changes in people’s lives occurred with the transition to a productive economy?

  1. Agriculture is born. People collect, plant and grow seeds from wild plants.
  2. Special tools for cultivating the land appear.
  3. Taming wild animals. Breeding animals. The origins of cattle breeding.
  4. People are gradually moving from appropriation to the production of products necessary for life.
  5. There are surplus products.

2. Name the main features of the primitive communal system.

  1. Primitive tools.
  2. Teamwork.
  3. Community property.
  4. Equal distribution of labor products.
  5. Human dependence on nature.

3. List the phenomena that testified to the beginning of the collapse of the primitive communal system.

  1. Among the members of the clan community, those who manage the community members are distinguished - elders and leaders. The elders supervise joint work, control the exchange of products, and monitor compliance with established orders and traditions. Leaders organize defense against enemies and lead military campaigns.
  2. Social inequality. With the advent of surpluses and the development of exchange, reserves accumulate in the hands of elders and leaders and are passed on by inheritance.
  3. Exploitation of other people's labor appears. Prisoners and slaves work instead of their owners, rich people.
  4. Neighboring communities are formed in which several clans live on the same territory.
  5. Communities are united under the authority of a paramount chief.
  6. Ethnic groups (nationalities) begin to form.

4. How did the use of iron tools affect the emergence of surplus products? Why weren't these surpluses available when people used stone tools?

With the help of iron tools, people could more efficiently cultivate the land or hunt. People began to produce much more food than they needed for their own consumption. There was a surplus. The use of stone tools was ineffective. With their help, people produced less food, so there was no surplus.

Working with the map

Determine on the map how people settled on the modern territory of our country, find centers of ancient agriculture, cattle breeding, and crafts.

Let's look at the maps located on pages 2 and 3 in the atlas on the history of Russia.

The large map shows that:

  • people began to settle in our country more than 12 thousand years ago (during the Pleistocene era - green arrows). They came from the territory of modern Europe, Central Asia and China;
  • in the IV-II millennium BC, the Maykop archaeological culture existed in the steppes and foothills of the North Caucasus (purple outline);
  • also, around the same time (3200-2400 BC), just north of the Maykop culture there were centers of the Ancient Yamnaya culture (blue outline), the territory of which covered the steppe plains from the Dniester River to the southern foothills of the Ural Mountains;
  • in the 3rd-2nd millennium BC, the Afanasyevskaya archaeological culture was located on the territory of the Altai Territory (pink outline);
  • and at the same time (III-II century BC) the dawn of the Volosovo archaeological culture was observed, which occupied the territory of Central Russia and the Middle Volga region (orange outline).

Looking at the small map we see that:

  • On the territory of Crimea and the Krasnoyarsk Territory, developed cultures were already in the 6th-3rd centuries BC, that is, even earlier than in other Russian regions.

Conclusion: the settlement of people occurred gradually from the southern territories to the more northern ones, and centers of culture appeared in the following order:

  1. Ancient Roman colonies (VI century BC);
  2. Bosporan Kingdom (VI century BC);
  3. Maykop archaeological culture (IV century BC);
  4. Ancient Yamnaya culture (IV century BC);
  5. Afanasyevskaya archaeological culture (III-II century BC);
  6. Volosovo archaeological culture (III-II century BC).

The centers of ancient agriculture were in the Crimea and the Krasnodar Territory, the centers of crafts were in the Southern Urals, and the centers of cattle breeding covered the entire Central Russia and the southern regions of Siberia.

We think, compare, reflect

1. Trace how and why the organization of life of ancient people changed. What are the reasons for the emergence of a neighborhood community and how does it differ from a tribal one?

With the beginning of metal processing, more advanced tools appeared. People's lives have become easier. They could farm or hunt more efficiently, resulting in a surplus of food. The domestication of animals marked the beginning of cattle breeding. It became possible to exchange surplus food between tribes. Depending on the climatic characteristics of the territory, the division of tribes into agricultural and pastoral ones began. Tribes that were engaged in agriculture began to lead a sedentary lifestyle, and pastoral tribes developed the steppe expanses.

Leaders and elders began to emerge from the community and govern the life of the community. The exchange of products, which was controlled by the elders, led to the accumulation of wealth. The appearance of accumulations caused clashes between tribes. Enemies captured became slaves. People appeared with wealth and owned slaves. Exploitation arose - the appropriation of the results of someone else's labor.

Gradually the communities united under the rule of the paramount leader. Tribal alliances and their rulers appeared. They began to set rules and enforce them. All this led to the gradual collapse of the primitive communal system and the emergence of a new form of organization of life - the state. Nationalities and ethnic groups began to form.

2. Archaeologists divide the history of mankind into the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages. Using the Internet, find out when such a division appeared and what signs underlie it. Create a diagram to illustrate your explanation.

Homework

1. Prepare a report on the reasons for the emergence of a neighborhood community

Improvements in tools allowed individual families to farm independently. Family ties weakened. Individual families left their fellow tribesmen and settled in other communities. Territorial (neighborhood) communities appeared. In such communities, people were united not by blood relationship, but by living in the same territory.

2. Find out what principles underlie the division of history into the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages. Present your answer in schematic form

The division of the prehistoric period into the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages was put forward by the Danish archaeologist Thomsen in 1816-1819 based on the study of archaeological finds. Thomsen argued that these three centuries must succeed each other, because stone would not have been used to make tools if people had bronze, which, in turn, had to give way to iron. This theory is confirmed by archaeological excavations. The name of the centuries is characterized by the leading role of found products from a certain material. Therefore, sometimes the Copper Age is placed before the Bronze Age, since copper is an integral part of bronze.

Need to know

State- organization of life in which there is a unified system of managing people living in the same territory; relationships between them are regulated on the basis of common laws (traditions), land protection is carried out; relationships with other states and peoples are regulated in one way or another.

People (nationality)- a large group of people formed in the same territory, speaking the same language and having a common culture.

Neolithic Revolution- This is the transition of man from an appropriating to a producing economy during the Neolithic period.

Neighborhood Community is a community in which people are united not by blood relationship, but by living together in a certain territory.