During the formation of the lexical composition of the Russian language, it included many words that were in use by neighboring peoples who spoke Slavic languages of the same branch of the language tree from which Russian comes. Of course, Old Church Slavonic became one of the most significant for the development of the Russian language.
The Old Church Slavonic language is one of the South Slavic dialects, which since the 9th century AD has become the literary language for fairly large territories. Many ancient books, mostly of religious content, were written in Old Church Slavonic. These are translations of the Bible, Greek treatises of the church fathers, books for church services and other literature that served to introduce Christianity in Slavic lands.
The Old Church Slavonic language represents a certain synthesis of the “living” languages that existed at that time, spoken by the Slavic tribes and which were included by Saints Cyril and Methodius in the universal language they created for translation from Greek. In addition to local vocabulary, the Old Church Slavonic language included elements from Greek and Latin, as well as some other European languages.
The Old Church Slavonic literary language, in addition to being derived from local colloquial dialects, was a normalized, virtually inanimate language. There was no live communication on it - only official recordings. The Old Church Slavonic language was also actively used in church life: not only was all literature written in it, but also services were conducted, facts of birth, baptism, marriage and death were recorded. Many Old Church Slavonic words are still found in the language called Church Slavonic - precisely because the church, as the world's largest conservative, still uses remnants of Old Church Slavonic for its services.
In Rus', the Old Church Slavonic language came into full force at the end of the 10th century. As Christianity advanced to remote corners of the state, the Old Church Slavonic language also moved there. In each locality, he was subject to some influence from the dialects already existing there, synthesizing new materials from the original Russian language. Such a peculiar and very interesting mixture of local and alien is recorded in chronicles and other monuments of ancient Russian literature. In view of this, it would be unlawful to say that Old Church Slavonic words in the Russian language represent an alien borrowing. This is by no means true, because over many centuries the Old Church Slavonic and native Russian languages have become closely related.
In modern Russian you can find many Old Slavonic words. These, of course, are, first of all, church terms such as cross, rod, sacrifice, grace. Abstract concepts also came from Old Church Slavonic: good, misfortune, wandering, power.
Not all borrowings are created equal. Some are purely Old Slavonic (Lanits, Persi), some came to it from other languages (glad, enemy).
All Old Church Slavonic words have their own phonetic, semantic and morphological features. Among their signs one can name incomplete consonance, alternation of -j - and -zh - when inflecting words and in their derivatives, and much more.
However, Old Church Slavonic words are far from the only borrowings that the Russian language took from the languages that existed and still exist in the Slavic lands. The Ukrainian, Polish, Belarusian and Slovak languages also had a great influence on him.
One of the most interesting dead languages is Old Church Slavonic. The words that were part of his vocabulary, the rules of grammar, even some phonetic features and the alphabet became the basis of the modern Russian language. Let's look at what kind of language it is, when and how it arose, and whether it is used today and in what areas.
We will also talk about why it is studied at universities, and also mention the most famous and significant works devoted to the Cyrillic alphabet and Old Church Slavonic grammar. Let us also remember Cyril and Methodius, the world-famous Thessaloniki brothers.
General information
Despite the fact that scientists have been paying attention to this language for centuries, studying the Old Church Slavonic alphabet and the history of its development, there is not much information about it. If the grammatical and phonetic structure of the language, the lexical composition has been more or less studied, then everything related to its origin is still in question.
The reason for this is that the creators of writing themselves either did not keep records regarding their work, or these records were completely lost over time. A detailed study of the writing itself began only several centuries later, when no one could say with certainty what kind of dialect became the basis of this writing.
It is believed that this language was artificially created on the basis of dialects of the Bulgarian language in the 9th century and was used on the territory of Rus' for several centuries.
It is also worth noting that in some sources you can find a synonymous name for the language - Church Slavonic. This is due to the fact that the origin of literature in Rus' is directly connected with the church. At first, literature was church literature: books, prayers, parables were translated, and original scriptures were created. In addition, mainly only people serving the church spoke this language.
Later, with the development of language and culture, Old Church Slavonic was replaced by the Old Russian language, which largely relied on its predecessor. This happened around the 12th century.
Nevertheless, the Old Church Slavonic initial letter has reached us practically unchanged, and we use it to this day. We also use a grammatical system that began to emerge even before the emergence of the Old Russian language.
Creation versions
It is believed that the Old Church Slavonic language owes its appearance to Cyril and Methodius. And it is this information that we find in all textbooks on the history of language and writing.
The brothers created a new writing based on one of the Solunsky dialects of the Slavs. This was done primarily in order to translate biblical texts and church prayers into the Slavic language.
But there are other versions of the origin of the language. Thus, I. Yagic believed that the basis of Old Church Slavonic was one of the dialects of the Macedonian language.
There is also a theory according to which the basis of the new writing was the Bulgarian language. She will be nominated by P. Safarik. He believed that this language should be called Old Bulgarian, and not Old Slavonic. Some researchers are still arguing about this issue.
By the way, Bulgarian linguists still believe that the language we are considering is Old Bulgarian, and not Slavic.
We can even assume that there are other, less well-known theories of the origin of language, but they either have not been considered in scientific circles, or they have been proven completely untenable.
In any case, Old Church Slavonic words can be found not only in Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian languages, but also in Polish, Macedonian, Bulgarian and other Slavic dialects. Therefore, discussions about which language is closest to Old Church Slavonic are unlikely to ever be completed.
Thessalonica brothers
The creators of the Cyrillic and Glagolitic alphabet - Cyril and Methodius - came from the city of Thessaloniki, in Greece. The brothers were born into a fairly wealthy family, so they were able to receive an excellent education.
The elder brother, Mikhail, was born around 815. When ordained as a monk, he received the name Methodius.
Constantine was the youngest in the family and was born around 826. He knew foreign languages and understood the exact sciences. Despite the fact that many predicted success and a magnificent future for him, Constantine decided to follow in the footsteps of his older brother and also became a monk, receiving the name Cyril. He died in 869.
The brothers were actively involved in spreading Christianity and the scriptures. They visited different countries, trying to convey the word of God to people. But nevertheless, it was the Old Church Slavonic alphabet that brought them world fame.
Both brothers were canonized. In some Slavic countries, May 24 is celebrated as the Day of Slavic Literature and Culture (Russia and Bulgaria). In Macedonia, Cyril and Methodius are honored on this day. Two more Slavic countries - the Czech Republic and Slovakia - moved this holiday to July 5.
Two alphabets
It is believed that the Old Slavonic initial letter was created precisely by the Greek enlighteners. In addition, there were originally two alphabets - Glagolitic and Cyrillic. Let's look at them briefly.
The first one is Glagolitic. It is believed that its creators were Cyril and Methodius. It is believed that this alphabet has no basis and was created from scratch. In Old Rus' it was used quite rarely, in isolated cases.
The second is Cyrillic. Its creation is also attributed to the Thessaloniki brothers. It is believed that the statutory Byzantine letter was taken as the basis for the alphabet. At the moment, the Eastern Slavs - Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians - use the letters of the Old Church Slavic alphabet, or rather the Cyrillic alphabet.
As for the question of which alphabet is older, there is also no clear answer to that. In any case, if we assume that both the Cyrillic and Glagolitic alphabet were created by the Thessaloniki brothers, then the difference between the time of their creation hardly exceeded ten to fifteen years.
Was there writing before the Cyrillic alphabet?
It is also interesting that some researchers of the history of language believe that there was writing in Rus' even before Cyril and Methodius. This theory is confirmed by the “Book of Veles,” which was written by the ancient Russian Magi even before the adoption of Christianity. At the same time, it has not been proven in what century this literary monument was created.
In addition, scientists claim that in various records of ancient Greek travelers and scientists there are references to the presence of writing among the Slavs. Also mentioned are the agreements that the princes signed with Byzantine merchants.
Unfortunately, it has not yet been established exactly whether this is true, and if so, what exactly was the written language in Rus' before the spread of Christianity.
Learning Old Church Slavonic
Regarding the study of the Old Church Slavonic language, it was of interest not only to scientists studying the history of the language and dialectology, but also to Slavic scholars.
Its study began in the 19th century with the emergence of the comparative historical method. We will not dwell on this issue in detail, since, in fact, a person who is not closely familiar with linguistics will not be interested or familiar with the names of scientists. Let's just say that more than one textbook has been compiled on the basis of research, many of them are used to study the history of language and dialectology.
In the course of research, theories of the development of the Old Church Slavonic language were developed, dictionaries of Old Church Slavonic vocabulary were compiled, and grammar and phonetics were studied. But at the same time, there are still unsolved secrets and mysteries of the Old Church Slavonic dialect.
We will also allow ourselves to give a list of the most famous dictionaries and textbooks of the Old Church Slavonic language. Perhaps these books will interest you and help you delve deeper into the history of our culture and writing.
The most famous textbooks were published by such scientists as Khabugraev, Remneva, Elkina. All three textbooks are called “Old Church Slavonic”.
A rather impressive scientific work was published by A. Selishchev. He prepared a textbook, consisting of two parts and covering the entire system of the Old Church Slavonic language, containing not only theoretical material, but also texts, a dictionary, and some articles on the morphology of the language.
The materials devoted to the Solunsky brothers and the history of the alphabet are also interesting. Thus, in 1930, the work “Materials on the history of the emergence of ancient Slavic writing”, written by P. Lavrov, was published.
No less valuable is the work of A. Shakhmatov, which was published in Berlin in 1908 - “The Legend of the Translation of Books into the Slovenian Language.” In 1855, O. Bodyansky’s monograph “On the Time of the Origin of Slavic Writings” was published.
An “Old Church Slavonic Dictionary” was also compiled, based on manuscripts of the 10th and 11th centuries, which was published under the editorship of R. Tseitlin and R. Vecherka.
All these books are widely known. Based on them, they not only write abstracts and reports on the history of the language, but also prepare more serious works.
Old Slavonic layer of vocabulary
A fairly large layer of Old Church Slavonic vocabulary was inherited by the Russian language. Old Church Slavonic words are quite firmly entrenched in our dialect, and today we cannot even distinguish them from native Russian words.
Let's look at a few examples so that you understand how deeply Old Slavonicisms have penetrated into our language.
Such church terms as “priest”, “victim”, “rod” came to us precisely from the Old Church Slavonic language, and abstract concepts such as “power”, “disaster”, “harmony” also belong here.
Of course, there are many more Old Slavonicisms themselves. We will give you several signs that indicate that the word is Old Church Slavonic.
1. Availability of prefixes voz- and through-. For example: return, excessive.
2. Compound lexemes with the words god-, good-, sin-, evil- and others. For example: evil, fall.
2. The presence of suffixes -stv-, -zn-, -ush-, -yush-, -ash- -yash-. For example: burning, melting.
It would seem that we have listed only a few signs by which Old Church Slavonicisms can be identified, but you probably already remembered more than one word that came to us from Old Church Slavonic.
If you want to find out the meaning of Old Church Slavonic words, we can advise you to look in any explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. Almost all of them have retained their original meaning, despite the fact that more than one decade has passed.
Modern use
At the moment, the Old Church Slavonic language is studied at universities in individual faculties and specialties, and is also used in churches.
This is due to the fact that at this stage of development this language is considered dead. Its use is possible only in church, since many prayers are written in this language. In addition, it is worth noting the fact that the first sacred scriptures were translated into the Old Church Slavonic language and are still used by the church in the same form as centuries ago.
Regarding the world of science, we note the fact that Old Church Slavonic words and their individual forms are often found in dialects. This attracts the attention of dialectologists, allowing them to study the development of language, its individual forms and dialects.
Researchers of culture and history also know this language, since their work is directly related to the study of ancient monuments.
Despite this, at this stage this language is considered dead, since, like Latin and Ancient Greek, no one has been communicating in it for a long time, and only a few know it.
Use in church
This language is most widely used in the church. Thus, Old Slavonic prayers can be heard in any Orthodox church. In addition, excerpts from church books and the Bible are also read on it.
At the same time, we also note that church employees and young seminary students also study this adverb, its features, phonetics and graphics. Today, Old Church Slavonic is rightfully considered the language of the Orthodox Church.
The most famous prayer, which is often read in this dialect, is “Our Father.” But there are still many prayers in Old Church Slavonic that are less known. You can find them in any old prayer book or hear them by visiting the same church.
Study at universities
Today, the Old Church Slavonic language is studied quite widely in universities. They take it at the faculties of philology, history, and law. In some universities it is also possible to study for philosophy students.
The program includes the history of origin, the Old Church Slavonic alphabet, features of phonetics, vocabulary, and grammar. Basic syntax.
Students not only study the rules, learn to inflect words, parse them as part of speech, but also read texts written in a given language, try to translate them and understand the meaning.
All this is done so that philologists can further apply their knowledge to study ancient literary monuments, features of the development of the Russian language, and its dialects.
It is worth noting that it is quite difficult to study the Old Church Slavonic language. The text written on it is difficult to read, since it not only contains many archaisms, but also the very rules for reading the letters “yat”, “er” and “er” are difficult to remember at first.
Thanks to the knowledge gained, history students will be able to study ancient cultural and written monuments, read historical documents and chronicles, and understand their essence.
The same applies to those who study at the faculties of philosophy and law.
Despite the fact that today Old Church Slavonic is a dead language, interest in it still does not subside.
conclusions
It was Old Church Slavonic that became the basis of the Old Russian language, which, in turn, replaced the Russian language. Words of Old Church Slavonic origin are perceived by us as originally Russian.
A significant layer of vocabulary, phonetic features, grammar of the East Slavic languages - all this was laid down during the period of development and use of the Old Church Slavonic language.
Old Church Slavonic is a formally dead language, in which only church ministers currently communicate. It was created back in the 9th century by the brothers Cyril and Methodius and was initially used for translating and recording church literature. In fact, Old Church Slavonic has always been a written language that was not spoken among the people.
Today we no longer use it, but at the same time it is widely studied in philological and historical faculties, as well as in theological seminaries. Today, Old Church Slavonic words and this ancient language can be heard by attending a church service, since all prayers in Orthodox churches are read in it.
Slavic dictionary of Old Russian words. K - P
Quote from Ryabinka's message Read in full In your quotation book or community!Slavic dictionary. Part 2
KAZHENIK - eunuch
INDICATION - instruction, exhortation
KAZATEL - mentor
KALIGI - boots with low tops
KAL - impurity, dirt
KALNY - dirty
KALUGER - monk
KAMARA - vault, shelter; tent, chamber
KAPA - hat
KAPITISYA - to gather together
KAPNO - together, together
KATUNA - wife
KENDAR - a measure of weight (about 3 pounds)
KERAST - snake; echidna
KEREMIDA - plate
KERSTA - coffin, grave
KLUKA - cunning, deception
SWEAR - horse, foal
KEY - suitable
KEY - steering wheel, helm
KMET - warrior
KOB - sorcery, fortune telling; happiness, luck
GOING - deceit
KOY (KUYU) - which, which
TIGHTS - quarrel, trouble
KOLO - cart, cart, wheel
MOSQUITOES - vaults on the roof
KOMONY - war horse
KOMKATI - to give communion
Crumbling - communion
KOPRINA - silk
FEED - food; type of tax, content; feast, treat
FEED - feed
KOROSTA - coffin
KOSNETI – hesitate
KOSNO - slowly
KOTORA - quarrel, enmity
quarrel - scold, swear, quarrel
KOFAR - Hindu slave
KOSHCHEY - slave, captive
blasphemy - sacrilege; funny jokes
KRAMOLA - rebellion, riot; malice, deceit; ambush, discord
RED - yarn, weaving mill
KRIN - lily
EXCEPT IN vain - looking to the side, despite this
KRYLOSHAN - clergymen
WONDERS - miracles
KUNA - marten skin, banknote in Ancient Rus'
KUPINA - bush, shrub
BUY - market, marketplace
BUY - together
TUBER - tent
KYY (KYY) - which, which; some
KUMET - warrior, warrior
LAGVITSA - bowl
LAGODITI - to indulge; do something nice
LANITA - cheek
Tenderness - gluttony
TASTE-HEART - gluttonous; pampered
LEK - dice game
LEPOTA - beauty, splendor; decency
LEPSHY - the best
FLATTERY - deception, cunning; heresy; CONSPIRACY
SUMMER - shoots of plants
FLY - you can
LEKHA - ridge, heap
LIHVA - interest
Dashing - evil
LICHBA - number, count
LICHENIC - insignificant, unfortunate
LOV - hunting
LOVITVA - hunting, fishing
LOVISCHE - a place for animal and fish hunting
LODZESNA - womb, uterus
LOMOVY - heavy
LONIS - last year
LUKA - bend, gyrus
LUKAREVO - winding
LUKNO - basket
LUTOVIANY - bast
LYCHENITSA - bast shoes
ANY - good, whatever, maybe even
LUBY - love, affection; addiction, inclination; agreement
Flattering - cunning, deceiving
LYADINA - thicket, bush; young forest
MAESTAT - throne, throne
MAMON - a type of monkey
MASTROTA - skill
MEGISTAN - dignitaries, nobles
Throwing - bows
SWORDMAN - princely warrior in Ancient Rus'; guard, squire
MILOT - sheepskin; outerwear; mantle, cloak
MNITI - think, believe
MOVI - bathhouse
GRAVE - hill
MREZHA - network
MUDITI, MUDDLY - hesitate, slowly
MUNGIT - Mongols
MUSIC - musical
MUSICIA - music
MUKHOYAR - Bukhara fabric made of cotton with wool or silk
MSHITSA - small insect, midge
MUKHORTY - nondescript, frail
COLLECTOR - tax collector, covetous man
MYTO - fee; file, trade duty; outpost, gathering place
NABDETI - take care, help
NAV - death
NAVODITI - slander
NAZIRATI – to observe
NAME - indicate, represent
BEST – especially
PUNISHER - mentor, teacher
NAKRY - tambourines, drums
NALESTI - get, find
NALYATSATI – strain
NAMETIVATI - to appoint
FLOORS - in half, in two
IN VAIN - suddenly, unexpectedly
NEPSCHEVATI - to invent
NAME - name
DELIVERY - definite, known; noble; great
ORDER - order, establishment of order
NASAD - ship
HEIR - descendant
NASOCHITI - convey, announce, inform
SUCCESSION - succession to the princely throne
NEGLI - maybe, perhaps
NEGLIGENCE - negligence
INCREDIBLE - unworthy
DISLIKE - displeasure, annoyance; enmity
GERMAN - foreign, foreign
NEMKO - mute
UNUSUAL - nasty
UNIdle - pregnant
HOSTILE - hostile, devilish
NEPSCHATI (NEPSCHAVATI) - to believe, to doubt; think
NETI - nephew
UNWASHED - incorruptible
NIKOLIZHE (NIKOLI) - never
NOTHING GREAT – nothing special
NOGUT - peas
ZERO - maybe; almost, right up, then
NUDMA - by force
NEEDED - hard
NECESSARY - forced, bad
NIRISCHHA - ruin, lair, hole, gulley
ENSURE - to deceive, to win over
BOTHLY – however, but
OBESITE - hang up, hang up
ANNOUNCE - notify, notify
OFFEND - bypass
OBNOSITI - exalt, glorify
TURN AWAY - to retreat from something
OBL, OBLY - round
OBON FLOOR - on the other half, on the other side
OBOYALNIK - seducer, sorcerer
IMAGE - appearance, image; icon; example, symbol, sign
OBROCHITI - impose quitrent
OBSITI - hang up, hang up
OVO - whether, then...that, or...or
OVOGDA - sometimes
OVYY - one, some, this, that; such, some
ORDER - on the right
SINGLE-ROW - single-breasted outerwear
ODRINA - building, hut, stable
OGE - what if
OKAYATI - to call unhappy, pitiful; consider unworthy
FEED – manage
AROUND – around, around
OKSAMIT - silk fabric with a pile of gold or silver threads
ENJOY - try, try to do something
OLAFA - reward, gift
OLE - however, but
OMGENNY - closed
ONCE - recently
ONOMO - yes
ONSITSA - someone, some
ONUDU - since then, from there
OPANICA - bowl, dishes
OPASH - tail
OPRATI - wash
LOWER - change, become haggard
AGAIN - back, back
ORATAY - plowman
YELL - plow
ORY - horse
ORTIMA - bedspread; blanket
TO BE OFFENSED - to mourn
OSLOP - pole, club
OSN - tip
OSTROG - palisade, fence made of stakes or logs
OSESTI - surround, besiege
OTAY - secretly, hidden
RAKE AWAY - get rid of, move away
SHADOW - paternal
OTEPLA - warmth
OTMETNIK - renegade
FROM HERE - from where, from there, why, because, as a result of that
DENYING - condemnation, prohibition
OTROK - teenager, young man; warrior from the prince's personal guard
REPORT - renounce
TO SNAP - damage, spoil
HUNG - hide; leave; fall behind; abstain
OTSET - vinegar
OCHE - if
OCHINA - fatherland, inheritance passed on by father to son
OSHUYUYU - left
PAVOLOKI - silk fabrics
PAKI - again, again, again
PARDUS - cheetah, leopard
PAROBK - boy, servant, servant
PAHATI - to blow, flutter
PACHE - more, higher, above, better
PELYN - wormwood
PENYAZ - money coin
SWITCH - outsmart
CROSS - get scared
REVERSE - interpret, translate from another language
PERCHES - abrasion
PERCY - breasts
FINGER - a handful of earth, earth, decay
PESTUN - teacher
SADNESS - care, care, troubles
CAKE - take care
PISHTS - pedestrian
P'SHTSI - infantry
PIRA - sum
PLISCH - noise, scream; confusion, excitement
FLESH - body
FLESH - corporeal
PLUS - foot
POVISM - bunch, skein
STORY - news, message, story
WRAPPINGS - silk
DAMAGE - bring down
POVEDTI - tell, tell, show
POGANSKY - pagan
POGANY - pagan
SIMILARITY - comparison, use
BREAK - subdue
PODRUCHNIK - subordinate
POKHIB - flattery, deceit
SHAME is a spectacle; laughing stock
SHAME - watch
GAG - bent, twisted
POKOSNY - passing
FIELD - judicial duel
POLMA - half
POSHATI - scare
POLSTYANY - felt
NOON - south
MIDNIGHT - north
FULL - open
POMAVATI – give a sign
WAKE - gifts
PONE - although, at least
PONT - sea
GET - grab, seize
FIELD - a travel measure 1000 steps long; day trip
PRIZYATI - to promote
POREKLO - nickname
Vices - battering guns
POROSI - dust
PORT - a piece of fabric. cloth
TAILOR - canvas
PORUB - dungeon, prison, cellar
POSKEPATI - to split, split; to harm
PROVERB - verbal agreement, agreement; proverb
POSTUSH - witness
SALON - according to the sun
POSTREL - plague, epidemic
CONSUME - destroy
TRY - try
PULL - to contrive, to try
POTYATI - hit, kill
POUHATI - sniff
SMELLING - ridicule
POYATI - take
RIGHT - real, correct
CONVERT - convert, incline
PRELAGATAY - scout, spy; messenger
ADORABLE - deceitful, deceptive
PRELESTY - deception, delusion; seduction; devilish machinations
DEBATE (PRI) - dispute, litigation; objection; a court case
SUPERPOWER - the middle of something
PRECIOUS - famous, illustrious
TO APPRECIATE - to threaten
PRETORGITI - to tear apart
STUMBLING - stumbling, stumbling; to make a mistake, to sin
EXHAUST - run out
PROHIBITION - threat
PRIVABITI - call, invite; attract
PRIVOLOKA - short outerwear
BUTT - example
RESIST - resist
VISIT - visit, visit; send down mercy; consider
PRISNO - always
PRISNY - dear, close
PRETTY - equip yourself
PRITOCHNIK - writer of parables
PUSH - prove
PROK - remainder
INDUSTRIALIST - protector
GET FAME - become famous
STRETCH - stretch out, stretch out; continue; spread out, put
TRAY - imprint, list; duty
PROTOZANCHIK - guard
PROUSTAVITI - predetermine
OTHER - future, in the future
YARN - dry, fry (immersed in oil), bake
PYKH - pride, arrogance
PERST - finger
Serf
SLAVE
A, m. Jack in cards.
Recorded by Dahl [Dal IV: 559].
Efremova's Dictionary
Serf
- m.
- :
- The one who in Ancient Rus' was in feudal dependence, in a form close to slavery.
- Household servant, serf servant.
- A subject of the king, who was completely dependent on him.
- trans. One who grovels before someone, who is ready to do anything out of servility and sycophancy.
- :
- m. outdated A device in the form of an inclined bench with a cutout for the back, used when removing boots.
Ozhegov's Dictionary
HOL ABOUT P, A, m.
1. In Ancient Rus': a dependent person is close to slavery; in feudal Russia: serf peasant, servant.
2. trans. A person who is ready to do anything out of servility, sycophancy, (in 2 meanings) (contempt).
| and. servant, And.
| adj. serfs, ya, ye (to 1 value) And servile, oh, oh.
Ushakov's Dictionary
Serf
holo p, serf, pl. serfs, serfs, and ( outdated) serfs, serfs, as well as serfs, serfs, husband.
1. In ancient Rus' - a slave ( ist.). Bonded slave. Complete serf.
| serf peasant, serf servant. “I casually blew my heel into the teeth of the exemplary slave, the faithful Yakov.” Nekrasov. “I am the princes of the Ducks’ servants.” Nekrasov. “We won’t give Sanka away to an indentured servant from the village; we’ll find a merchant’s son in Moscow.” A.N. Tolstoy. “I don’t intend to indulge the slaves.” Fonvizin.
2. trans. A person groveling before someone, ready to do anything out of servility, sycophancy ( contempt). “What do I need in the solemn court of a noble slave, an ignoramus under a star.” Pushkin.
3. Jack, same as ( old).
4. A device in the form of an inclined bench with a cutout for the backdrop for removing boots ( outdated).
Dictionary of forgotten and difficult words of the 18th-19th centuries
Serf
, A , m; Servants, ev , pl.
1. In ancient times, a person who was dependent, in a form close to slavery.
◘ BOYAR SLAVE, ◘ BONDED SLAVE.
* [Khrushchev:] Yes, sir, our father. We are your zealous, persecuted slaves. // Pushkin. Boris Godunov // *
2. Serf servant.
* I don’t intend to tolerate jokes from your servants. // Pushkin. Dubrovsky //;... In the teeth of an exemplary slave, Jacob the faithful, casually hit with his heel. // Nekrasov. Who lives well in Rus' // *
3. Minion, minion of someone ( portable).
* A servant in shiny attire with folded-back sleeves immediately served various drinks and food. // Gogol. Taras Bulba //; He loved the simple life Kozakov and quarreled with those of his comrades who were inclined towards the Warsaw side, calling them slaves of the Polish lords. // Gogol. Taras Bulba // *
SLAVE, SLAVE, SLAVE, SLAVE, SLAVE.
To answer this question, it is enough to delve a little into the history of the language.
The basis for all Slavic languages would be the Proto-Slavic language, which is very ancient.
Proto-Slavic language
Some scientists consider it a hypothetical language, i.e. presumably former, theoretical - no written monuments of the Proto-Slavic language exist. It was reconstructed based on a comparison of reliably attested Slavic and other Indo-European languages.
A. Schleicher was the first to describe the Proto-Slavic language in 1858 in the article “A Brief Essay on the History of Slavic Languages.” A. Leskin, who studied Proto-Slavic phonetics and morphology, made a great contribution to the study of the Proto-Slavic language.
Yosef Dobrovsky August Schleicher August Leskin
(1753-1829) (1821-1868) (1840-1916)
These linguists made a significant contribution to the reconstruction of the Proto-Slavic language.
Most of the Proto-Slavic vocabulary is original. But long-term proximity to non-Slavic peoples affected the vocabulary of the Proto-Slavic language. Proto-Slavic had borrowings from Iranian, Celtic, Germanic, Turkic, Latin and Greek languages. Most likely, there were borrowings from the Baltic languages, but they are difficult to identify due to the fact that in the case of Slavic and Baltic languages it is often difficult to distinguish borrowed words from native cognates.
Reconstruction of Proto-Slavic vocabulary helps to establish the origins of Slavic languages. Here are examples: *orati “to plow”, *gumьno “threshing floor”, *tokъ “threshing floor”, *proso “millet”, *rъžь “rye”, *ovьsъ “oats”, *pьšenica “wheat”, *melko “milk” , *syrъ “cheese”, *korva “cow”, *volъ “ox”, *bykъ “bull”, *telę “calf”, *ovьca “sheep”, *tъkati “weave”, *lьnъ “flax”, * konopja “hemp”, *kǫdělь “tow”, *pręsti “to spin”, *sukno “cloth”, *poltьno “linen”).
Here is the estimated area of distribution of the Proto-Slavic language in the 6th century. (indicated in pink)
Old Slavonic language
It is closest to the hypothetical Proto-Slavic language of all other Slavic languages.
In the IX-XI centuries. The literary language of most Slavic peoples was Old Church Slavonic. It was he who influenced the formation of many then young Slavic languages, enriched the Russian language with abstract concepts that did not yet have their names. The Cyrillic alphabet, developed for the Old Church Slavonic language, later formed the basis of the Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Macedonian, Bulgarian and Serbian alphabets.
Old Church Slavonic was the first Slavic literary language, based on the dialect of the Slavs who lived in the 9th century. in the vicinity of the city of Thessaloniki (now Thessaloniki, the second largest city in Greece). Writing was developed in the middle of the 9th century. brothers-educators Cyril and Methodius.
Cyril and Methodius
Kirill(in the world Constantine, nicknamed the Philosopher, 827-869) and Methodius(in the world Michael; 815-885) - brothers from the city of Thessaloniki, creators of the Old Church Slavonic alphabet and language, Christian preachers.
Cyrillic and Glagolitic were used as the alphabet for the Old Church Slavonic language.
Cyrillic
Cyrillic is one of two (along with Glagolitic) ancient alphabets for the Old Church Slavonic language.
Cyrillic
Cyrillic-based alphabets are or were the writing system for 108 natural languages, including the following Slavic languages: Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Ruthenian, Russian, Serbian, Ukrainian, Montenegrin.
Most of the non-Slavic languages of the peoples of the USSR (of which some had other writing systems based on Latin, Arabic or other) were translated into Cyrillic in the late 1930s. These are, for example, non-Slavic languages Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Tajik, as well as Mongolian, etc.
The Cyrillic alphabet entirely includes the Greek alphabet (24 letters), but some purely Greek letters (xi, psi, fita, izhitsa) are not in their original place, but are moved to the end. To these were added 19 letters to represent sounds specific to the Slavic language and absent in Greek. Before the reform of Peter I, there were no lowercase letters in the Cyrillic alphabet; all text was written in capital letters.
Cyrillic alphabet: Novgorod birch bark letter and its drawing
Glagolitic
One of the first Slavic alphabet.
Glagolitic
Many linguists believe that the Glagolitic alphabet was created before the Cyrillic alphabet, which, in turn, was created on the basis of the Glagolitic alphabet and the Greek alphabet. The oldest surviving Glagolitic inscription with an exact date dates back to 893 (made in the church of the Bulgarian Tsar Simeon in Preslav). The oldest handwritten monuments (including the “Kyiv Leaves” of the 10th century) are written in the Glagolitic alphabet, a more archaic language.
The appearance of the letters of the early Glagolitic alphabet somewhat coincides with the Georgian church alphabet, created before the 9th century, possibly on the basis of the Armenian one. It is known that St. Constantine the Philosopher (Kirill) was familiar with Eastern alphabets (he read Hebrew texts in the original), which is also mentioned in his life. The Glagolic and Cyrillic alphabets in their oldest versions are almost completely identical in composition, differing only in the shape of the letters. When reprinting Glagolitic texts in a typographical manner, Glagolitic letters are usually replaced with Cyrillic (since today few people can read Glagolitic). However, the numerical values of the Glagolitic and Cyrillic letters are not the same: in the Glagolitic alphabet the numerical values of the letters are ordered in accordance with the order of the letters, and in the Cyrillic alphabet they are tied to the numerical values of the corresponding letters of the Greek alphabet.
From the very beginning, Old Church Slavonic was a bookish and literary language and was never used as a means of everyday communication.
By the end of the 10th century. The Old Church Slavonic language underwent changes under the influence of other Slavic languages, and manuscripts written later than this period are considered to have been written in Church Slavonic. We remind you that the Old Church Slavonic language was based on only one of the dialects of the eastern group of the South Slavic branch of the Slavic languages.
Old Russian language
Old Russian language is the language of the Eastern Slavs in the period from the 6th to the 13th-14th centuries, the common ancestor of the Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian languages. The Old Russian language, like all Slavic languages, goes back to the Proto-Slavic language and is the result of its collapse and division into different Slavic language groups. By the 10th century in the language of the Eastern Slavs, a number of linguistic phenomena developed that separated them from the southern and Western Slavs: full-vocality, the use of [h] and [zh] in place of the Proto-Slavic combinations *tj and *dj; absence of nasal vowels and others. In general, the phonetic and grammatical systems were inherited from Proto-Slavic.
The phrase “Old Russian language” does not refer exclusively to the modern Russian language. This is the self-name of the language of the Eastern Slavs of this period (Russians). The Old Russian language was not unified; it included many different dialects and contributed to the unification of the Eastern Slavs as part of the Old Russian state. There are two dialect zones on the territory of ancient Rus'. This is a northwestern dialect type (Pskov and Novgorod lands, which include the territories of the European north of modern Russia, as well as the territories of northern Belarus). Another dialect type was widespread in the south (future Ukraine), in the center (future central Russia), and in the east (current eastern part of European Russia).
The Old Russian state arose as a result of the unification of a number of East Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty.
Map of the Old Russian State
At its peak, the Old Russian state, with its capital in Kyiv, occupied the territory from the Taman Peninsula in the south, the Dniester and the headwaters of the Vistula in the west to the headwaters of the Northern Dvina in the north and tributaries of the Volga in the east.
By the middle of the 12th century. a period of feudal fragmentation began, and the Old Russian state actually disintegrated into one and a half dozen separate Russian principalities, ruled by different branches of the Rurik dynasty. Kyiv continued to be formally considered the main table of Rus' until the Mongol invasion (1237-1240), and the Principality of Kiev remained in the collective possession of Russian princes. The Principality of Polotsk was the first to separate from Kyiv (at the beginning of the 11th century). In the second quarter of the 12th century. The Old Russian state completely disintegrated into independent principalities.
The Western Russian written language (“Russki ezik”) was formed and was used in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. There are known texts of this period with Belarusian and Ukrainian features. The Belarusian language is based on the dialects of the Dregovichi, part of the Krivichi, Radimichi and Northerners. After unification with Poland, the use of the Church Slavonic language was partially limited in the lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
The literary language of the Moscow principality was influenced to a much lesser extent by Polish, in contrast to the Western Russian language, although it was influenced by it in the 16th-17th centuries. some Polish linguistic phenomena were borrowed. But the influence of the Church Slavonic language on the “Great Russian” (“Moscow”) literary language was deeper. Church Slavonic influence affected primarily the vocabulary of the Russian language, as well as syntax, morphology and spelling. But the Russian (Great Russian) language also acquired some new features that were absent in the Church Slavonic, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages.
So, the modern Russian literary language was initially a combination of two old dialect traditions of the Old Russian language: North-West (Novgorod, Pskov) and Center-East (Rostov, Suzdal, Ryazan, a little later Moscow) and was formed during the 17th-19th centuries.
Period of the Russian national language
In the middle of the 17th century. The Russian nation is taking shape and the Russian national language begins to form on the basis of Moscow. This is facilitated by the wider spread of writing, education and science.
From the second half of the 16th century. the sphere of use of the Church Slavonic language narrowed, by the 18th century. it is preserved only as a language of worship. Church Slavonicisms become archaisms (outdated words).
The norms of the Russian literary language were developed in the 17th-18th centuries. By the middle of the 18th century. An oral-colloquial variety of the Russian language is emerging.
In 1755, M. V. Lomonosov created the first grammar (“Russian Grammar”), which established the norms of the Russian literary language. Further, the Russian language developed in the works of A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky, M. V. Lomonosov, A. P. Sumarokov, N. I. Novikov, D. I. Fonvizin, G. R. Derzhavin, N. M. Karamzina, I. A. Krylova, A. S. Griboyedov, A. S. Pushkina. 
It is Pushkin who is the founder of the modern Russian language - in his work the language combined Russian colloquial, foreign and Church Slavonic elements. M. Yu. Lermontov, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov, I. A. Bunin and other writers improved the norms of the literary Russian language.
Modern Russian language
The Russian language is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world - the sixth among all languages of the world in terms of the total number of speakers and the eighth in terms of the number of speakers who speak it as a native language.
Russian is the most widespread Slavic language and the most widespread language in Europe (geographically and in terms of the number of native speakers).
Russian is the state language of the Russian Federation, one of the two state languages of Belarus, and one of the official languages of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and other countries.
Russian is the main language of international communication in Central Eurasia, Eastern Europe, and the countries of the former Soviet Union, one of the six working languages of the UN, UNESCO and other international organizations. In 2013, the Russian language took 2nd place among the most popular Internet languages.
In total, about 260 million people speak Russian in the world.
